Child Development And Its Effect On Children s Health And...

To raise a healthy child, there must be many factors incorporated with the child’s development, such as safety, money, and healthy, stable, and loving parents to take care of the child. In case one of the critical factors is missed, the child and his/her parents would face a variety of obstacles. One of the essential factors that influence child development is money because many life aspects depend on money, for example, how much money the parents make decides whether the child would participate in preschool or not, and it also decides the quality of the preschool. Furthermore, money influence the kind of food people eat, and how nutrition it is. These decisions have an impact on the child development and the child’s future.†¦show more content†¦(Pollitte, 1994) As reported by Lefmann and Combs-Orme (2014), children who live in poverty suffer from various disadvantages such as chronic diseases, behavioral and emotional issues, malnutrition, educational achievem ent, and the most critical issue they face is prenatal stress. Prenatal stress is described as the exposure of the mother to high levels of stress while pregnant. The stress that the mother experiences while pregnancy doesn’t only affect her, but also the baby. Moreover, Lefmann and Combs-Orme noted that prenatal stress disturbs the fetus’ brain development, and social well-being because the stress hormones from the mother stimulates the placenta to also produce stress hormones, which as a result would affect the fetus. In case of severe stress early delivery can occur. Nevertheless, multiple factors could cause prenatal stress, like â€Å"food insecurity, substandard housing, violence, and other environmental factors associated with poverty† (Lefmann Combs-Orme, 2014). Based on what Lefmann and Combs-Orme stated, poor population goes through a lot of stressful events such as crime, and these events leave a greater impact on poor people’s lives comparing with wealthy or middle-class people. Also, poor individuals have less opportunities in many aspects of life, like housing, or jobs. As a result, this could lead to stress (Lefmann Combs-Orme, 2014). Social work is excellent in helping parents to minimizeShow MoreRelatedEffects Of Poverty On Children1553 Words   |  7 PagesHow Poverty Effects Children Makayla Ray University of Alabama in Birmingham Abstract This literature review of twelve previously published research articles has focused on summarizing some of the effects of poverty on children. The selected articles all focused on the major effect of poverty on children, and were sorted into four sub-categories or themes based upon a specific focus areas of this complex and not yet fully understood issue. These themes included developmental, educationalRead MoreEffects Of Poverty On Children1554 Words   |  7 PagesEffects of Poverty on Children Makayla Ray University of Alabama in Birmingham Abstract This literature review of twelve previously published research articles has focused on summarizing some of the effects of poverty on children. The selected articles all focused on the major effect of poverty on children, and were sorted into four sub-categories or themes based upon a specific focus areas of this complex and not yet fully understood issue. These themes included developmental, educationalRead More2.1 Describe with Examples the Kinds of Influences That Affect Children and Young People‚Äà ´s Development Including; Background, Health and Environment803 Words   |  4 PagesA child development is influenced in many ways such as their background, health and environment. These factors will have an impact on the child’s different areas of development. Background Children come from all different family environments, cultures and circumstances. Children go through significant family changes such as a family break-up or a new step-family. These can affect a child’s emotional and intellectual development. A child may also change their behaviour, which means there abilityRead MoreEffects of Postpartum Depression on Child Bearing and Rearing Family1357 Words   |  6 PagesEffects of Postpartum Depression on Child Bearing and Rearing Family Postpartum depression (PPD) is a major event occurring in eight to fifteen percent of the woman population after delivering their child (Glavin, Smith, Sà ¸rum Ellefsen, 2010). The symptoms and causes of PPD are similar to depression symptoms in other periods of life (Glavin et al., 2010). These symptoms may include feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, loss of interest in daily activities, sleep changes, anger or irritabilityRead MoreThe Effects Of Divorce On Child Development1194 Words   |  5 PagesThe Effects of Divorce on Child Development I met the love of my life in my financial accounting class. He was charming, and intelligent, and he carried himself well. Early into our relationship I realized underneath this assuring exterior, was a broken, unstable man. He had issues with trust, and he always took many health risks. He explained to me how hard it was for him to attach himself to people because he figured they would leave anyways. Nothing is forever. he seemed to believe. On topRead MoreEffects of Poverty on Children: Literature Review Essay1352 Words   |  6 Pagesarticles has focused on summarizing some of the effects of poverty on children. The selected articles all focused on the major effect of poverty on children, and were sorted into four sub-categories or themes based upon a specific focus areas of this complex and not yet fully understood issue. These themes included developmental, educational outcomes, health, and parenting effects, and how they were impacted by children living in poverty. Impact on Development The developmental theme included reviewsRead MoreIs Entertainment Technology Beneficial?902 Words   |  4 Pagesso has a negative side effect to the conveniences of it. These negative outcomes have disrupted the agenda for youth as well as children and infants. â€Å"It takes two full years for a baby s brain to develop to the point where the symbols on the screen come to represent their equivalents in the real world† (Healthy Children). Exposure to entertainment technology from the age’s birth to two years of age has negative effects. These effects include delayed cognitive development, language, social emotionalRead MoreThe Theory Of Kathryn Barnard1643 Words   |  7 Pagesnursing (Parent-Child Interaction model) is the most relevant and contains in itself all the research throughout her life. The essence of the theory is the relationship that has the environment, parents or caregiver for the upbringing of the child since birth and the characteristics of the child if, in the process of their development bio-psycho-social, demonstrating how these factors are essential in the evolution of the child identifying through multiple studies of development vary according toRead MoreRacism And The Australian Human Rights Commission1626 Words   |  7 PagesRacism, wherever it occurs, has damaging effects. It can be defined as the belief that all members of each race possess characteristics or abilities, especially so as to distinguish it as inferior or superior to another race (Oxford dictionary). It can occur on individual, internal,or institutional levels, and it can be either subtle or obvious (Jones,2000). Research confirms that racism is still prevalent in today’s society, in 2013 the Australian Human Rights Commission received a 59 per cent increaseRead MoreThe Positive Effect of High Quality Childcare on Childrens Cognitive Development1452 Words   |  6 PagesCognitive development is defined as the growth and change in a personâ€℠¢s ability to perform mental tasks including thinking, understanding and reasoning (California Department of Education, 2014). Cognitive development is a process involving a complex interaction between biological and environmental factors (Feinstein, 2003, as cited in Wong, Edwards, 2013). There are multiple factors that occur in early childhood including breastfeeding, parental intelligence and obstetric complications that have

Evaluating Historical Views Of Leadership Paper LDR

Evaluating Historical Views of Leadership James Rankin University of Phoenix Evaluating Historical Views of Leadership The process of evaluating historical aspects of leadership involved critically analyzing the commonalities and disparities among a group of influential leaders, such as Thomas Carlyle, Mohandas Gandhi, Niccolo Machiavelli and W.E.B Du Bois. Carlyle (1795-1881), a Scottish historian emphasized the importance of heroism that required men to be subordinated to the commander of men (Wren, 1995 p.53). Further analysis of the evaluation revealed theories of Gandhi and Machiavelli which produced evidence of conflicting viewpoints on the topic of violence among historical leaders throughout the ages. Gandhi‘s leadership†¦show more content†¦Furthermore, leaders who can use communication skills effectively, are able to comprehend and express ideas (Ringer, 2002; Tareq, 2008). Achieving effective oral communication skills requires leaders to limit words and phrases, which results in explaining their concepts and ideas. Levinson also states, leaders who use too many words have a tendency to ramble about non-relevant issues, however summarizing the main points , staying focused and avoiding distractions helps leaders discipline what information is relevant, resulting in translating their thoughts into a profitable action faster (1968). Effective communication requires leaders to be prepared, organized and observant, giving leaders the ability to execute their message successfully (Showry Manasa, 2012). Conclusion. By evaluating the leadership styles of historical leaders, I was able to understand how their theories influenced people throughout the ages. Carlyle, Gandhi, Machiavelli, and DuBois were all very influential leaders during their times in history. However, after comparing their similarities and disparities in theory and style, it is apparent that Carlyle viewpoints on what a great leader should be is entirely different from the perspectives of Gandhi, Machiavelli, and DuBois. Carlyle emphasized that all men should being entirely subordinate to their

Man vs society free essay sample

Between individual and society, we have a very direct relationship. Anywhere or everywhere we go we will end up facing different people and personalities. We cannot survive without being in someones company, for example, a baby cannot grow and learn on its own without parents. Humans in general have to have structure in their lives in order to become a well-balance human being. We feed off of society and learn from everything and everyone. Society create an individuals and scope them into what they are today. Individuals without society will be more difficult and more complex. If we dont have society, the whole entire world would be unstructured and chaotic. We will not have any rules to regulate ourselves; so therefore, there will be more crimes and murders because there will be lack of laws. It will be impossible to survive in a world without the structure, rules, laws, and lessons that society carries. We will write a custom essay sample on Man vs society or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For example, when a person commits a crime, they get punish due to the fact they broke one of societys rule. Without society, the person will not know weather their actions were good or bad, so they will most likely do something worse or continue doing that activity. Individual and society have a mutual relationship between each other. We as humans have to learn how to live and adapt to other people and the world. Not only people, but the rules and laws that the government made for us. Society is there for a reason, and its something that everyone need in their life. Individual and Society do clash a lot, for example, when people is very selfish and only thinks about themselves, they will learn their lesson my seeing how great society can be and feel sorry for preventing themselves from being apart from it. In conclusion, human and society share a direct relationship between each other. Human beings need society for many reasons like: interaction upon one another, rules, laws, culture, and customs. Without all of those things, We will not be able to survive and adapt to the world because it will end up being unbalanced and in turmoil. Human and society do clash and have different views and opinions all the time, but at the end of the day we all find common ground because we need each other to survive. When people think that we dont need human interactions or complain about the government, they need to think why we have these things on earth if we dont need them.

Office of the President of the United States free essay sample

A description of the duties and powers of the president of the United States. This papers outlines the role played by the American president. It discusses the fact that the President is subject to the issues that are laid out in the Constitution, an eighteenth century document that was intended for governing a rural nation, far removed from the advanced, industrialized America of today. The writer explains that despite this fact, the office of President of the United States has become one of the most powerful and influential positions within world politics and economics. Although, on the one hand, the President of the United States is one of the most powerful and influential individuals in the world, it is an office that is also subject to the rules and limitations which are clearly set out in Article II of the US Constitution. This constitutional definition of the office of President is highly specific on issues such as the term of office, the qualifications required to become President, and the structure of presidential elections. We will write a custom essay sample on Office of the President of the United States or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, in regard to many of the important powers and roles of the President, there exists a degree of room for interpretation and evolution. Despite being generally considered as one of the great successes of the Constitution ( Pritchett, 1981), the modern office of President has acquired authority and functions which were neither intended nor outlined by the Constitution, and, through the legislation of Congress and the courts, the powers of the US President continue to expand and adapt to deal with todays issues (White, 1982).

Free Essays on Sarah And Hagar

The year is 1850 BC and Abram and Sarai can’t conceive so Sarai allows her maid, Hagar, to become her husband’s concubine to bear children. The two eventually bore a son and named him Ishmael. He was the first son to Abram and born of a slave women. Thirteen years later God came to Abram and made with him a covenant, changed his and his wife’s name to Abraham and Sarah and promised them a son. Not long after, Sarah bore Isaac, Abrahams second, freeborn son. Later in the New Testament of the Bible, it is suggested that these two events act as an analogy for the Old and New Covenants, Ishmael signifying the Old Covenant while Isaac obviously represents the New Covenant. There is much significance relating to the covenants in these events. The timeline, for example, is significant being that Ishmael was conceived first and representing the first of the two covenants. Also the fact that Ishmael was born to Abram by Hagar, a slave, is considerable because the Jews were slaves during the Old Covenant. Hagar was ugly (probably representing the harsh years of slavery the Jews went through), and aggressive (representing the escape of the Jews from Egypt). Isaac, on the other hand, was freeborn, signifying the freedom of the Jews during the New Covenant. Also the name Isaac comes from the Hebrew word meaning â€Å"Laugh†, which most like represents the lighter years after slavery. Finally, God and Abraham started the tradition of circumcision and others with Ishmael and continued it with Isaac, much like the Old Covenant’s tradition and culture was carried over to the New Covenants. I feel this is a good analogy, whether planned out or deriving on some higher level or just a theory, and can be used to explain something deeper within the Bible.... Free Essays on Sarah And Hagar Free Essays on Sarah And Hagar The year is 1850 BC and Abram and Sarai can’t conceive so Sarai allows her maid, Hagar, to become her husband’s concubine to bear children. The two eventually bore a son and named him Ishmael. He was the first son to Abram and born of a slave women. Thirteen years later God came to Abram and made with him a covenant, changed his and his wife’s name to Abraham and Sarah and promised them a son. Not long after, Sarah bore Isaac, Abrahams second, freeborn son. Later in the New Testament of the Bible, it is suggested that these two events act as an analogy for the Old and New Covenants, Ishmael signifying the Old Covenant while Isaac obviously represents the New Covenant. There is much significance relating to the covenants in these events. The timeline, for example, is significant being that Ishmael was conceived first and representing the first of the two covenants. Also the fact that Ishmael was born to Abram by Hagar, a slave, is considerable because the Jews were slaves during the Old Covenant. Hagar was ugly (probably representing the harsh years of slavery the Jews went through), and aggressive (representing the escape of the Jews from Egypt). Isaac, on the other hand, was freeborn, signifying the freedom of the Jews during the New Covenant. Also the name Isaac comes from the Hebrew word meaning â€Å"Laugh†, which most like represents the lighter years after slavery. Finally, God and Abraham started the tradition of circumcision and others with Ishmael and continued it with Isaac, much like the Old Covenant’s tradition and culture was carried over to the New Covenants. I feel this is a good analogy, whether planned out or deriving on some higher level or just a theory, and can be used to explain something deeper within the Bible....

9 Steps to a 1st Grade Lesson Plan for Telling Time

9 Steps to a 1st Grade Lesson Plan for Telling Time For students, learning to tell time can be difficult. But you can teach students to tell time in hours and half-hours by following this step-by-step procedure. Depending on when you teach math during the day, it would be helpful to have a digital clock sound an alarm when math class begins. If your math class begins on the hour or the half hour, even better! Step-by-Step Procedure If you know your students are shaky on time concepts, it’s best to start this lesson with a discussion of morning, afternoon, and night. When do you get up? When do you brush your teeth? When do you get on the bus for school? When do we do our reading lessons? Have students put these into the appropriate categories of morning, afternoon, and night.Tell students that we are going to get a little more specific. There are special times of day that we do things, and the clock shows us when. Show them the analog clock (the toy or the classroom clock) and the digital clock.Set the time on the analog clock for 3:00. First, draw their attention to the digital clock. The number(s) before the : describe the hours, and the numbers after the : describe the minutes. So for 3:00, we are exactly at 3 o’clock and no extra minutes.Then draw their attention to the analog clock. Tell them that this clock can also show the time. The short hand shows the same thing as the number(s) before t he : on the digital clock - the hours. Show them how the long hand on the analog clock moves faster than the short hand - it is moving by minutes. When it is at 0 minutes, it will be right up at the top, by the 12. (This is hard for kids to understand.) Have students come up and make the long hand move quickly around the circle to reach the 12 and zero minutes several times.Have students stand up. Have them use one arm to show where the long clock hand will be when it is at zero minutes. Their hands should be straight up above their heads. Just like they did in Step 5, have them move this hand rapidly around an imaginary circle to represent what the minute hand does.Then have them imitate the 3:00 short hand. Using their unused arm, have them put this out to the side so that they are imitating the hands of the clock. Repeat with 6:00 (do the analog clock first) then 9:00, then 12:00. Both arms should be straight above their heads for 12:00.Change the digital clock to be 3:30. Show what this looks like on the analog clock. Have students use their bodies to imitate 3:30, then 6:30, then 9:30. For the remainder of the class period, or at the introduction of the next class period, ask for volunteers to come up to the front of the class and make a time with their bodies for other students to guess. Homework/Assessment Have students go home and discuss with their parents the times (to the nearest hour and half hour) that they do at least three important things during the day. They should write these down on paper in the correct digital format. Parents should sign the paper indicating that they have had these discussions with their child. Evaluation Take anecdotal notes on students as they complete Step 9 of the lesson. Those students who are still struggling with the representation of hours and half hours can receive some extra practice with another student or with you. Duration Two class periods, each 30-45 minutes long. Materials toy analog clockdigital clock

The Effects of the Current Global Recession on the Tourism Industry Dissertation

The Effects of the Current Global Recession on the Tourism Industry - Dissertation Example However, it is not easy to get the customer to come in with a smile and a treat. This dissertation presents a discussion about the impact of the current recession of 2008/2009 on the European tourism and hospitality industries and strategies for competition.   I certify that, except where cited in the text, this work is the result of research carried out by the author of this study. The main content of the study which has been presented contains work that has not previously been reported anywhere.   The business cycle is constantly ongoing and with it, the world moves from a bright and healthy expansion, in which everyone is optimistic and looking to fulfill their dreams, into dark and difficult recessions during which everyone is fearful (Navarro, 2005, pp. 1 – 5). The Business cycle causes jobs to be created lost, with companies rising and falling with the business cycle. An interlinked global economy makes it difficult for nations or even regions to remain insulated from what takes place in other parts of the world. Thus, a hiccup in one part of the world often results in its effects being felt elsewhere. However, the movement from expansion into a recession is nothing new and the Great Depression, the Asian Financial Crisis, the recessions after the World Wars and the 1890 financial crisis in England are a testimony to this. Juglars eight-year cycles and longer-term waves which are cycles of 17 to 18 years coupled with the even longer Kondratevs cycles that averag e fifty years in length have long been studied by economists (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008, â€Å"Business Cycle†). A decline in production and employment, which causes incomes and the spending power of households to decline, are the consequences of a recession.

The Future of the Renewable energy of Saudi Arabia(Jeddah) Dissertation

The Future of the Renewable energy of Saudi Arabia(Jeddah) - Dissertation Example This much energy can power the entire nation for 72 years. It becomes evident from the study that as the country lies very near to the equator, it is the best place to harvest solar energy (Aljarbou, 2009). In addition, it is seen that Jeddah has an average of 5.78 kWh/m2/day of insolation because of its higher solar intensity. This is because of the altitude of the place. So, in order to meet the entire energy needs of Jeddah, that is calculated to be around 50.915 GWh/day, the total area required will be 36.64 km2 which is about 1.22 % of the total land area of Jeddah (ibid). Aljarboua also looks into the financial aspects of installing Photovoltaic technologies. Here, the picture is negative. When the economic analysis is conducted using the national renewable energy laboratory guidelines, it is found that the saving to investment ratio (SIR) is very poor in Saudi Arabia as compared to other nations. While the SIR is less than 0.13 in Saudi Arabia, it is much better in other natio ns. The reason for this poor SIR is the low price of energy in Saudi Arabia due to the easy availability of oil resources. That means, if the solar energy technology is to become economically beneficial, either the cost of fossil fuels should go considerably upwards, or the installation costs of the photovoltaic solar energy technologies should come dramatically down. So, in his study, Aljarboua takes the other cheaper forms of harvesting solar energy. Some of them are solar water heating (SWH), and ventilation air preheating (SVP). From the study, it becomes evident that the last two forms of harvesting solar energy are more suitable for Saudi Arabia. While photovoltaic technology has an SIR of 0. 1175, that of SWH is 0.52 and of SVP is 7.78. In addition, the pay back years also vary considerably. If the PV technology requires 149 years, SWH and SVP require only 33.5 and 2.25 years respectively. In fact, the use of solar energy has been rising in Saudi Arabia since 1960. The King A bdulaziz University for Science and Technology’s Energy Research Institute has conducted many studies on the utilization of solar energy. Some practical use of solar energy mentioned in the study are ‘lighting, cooling, water heating, crop/fruit drying, water desalination, operation of irrigation pumps, running of meteorological stations, road and tunnel lighting, road signals and traffic lights’ (â€Å"Renewable energy feasibility study†). Despite all these developments, the practical use of solar energy has not made notable progress. There are various reasons associated with this failure. The first one, according to Said, I.M.Ei-Amin and A. M. Al-Shehri (n.d.), is that oil is easily available in Saudi Arabia. In addition, the oil is more effective as an energy source and it has a considerably lower cost in the nation. The second major issue is the dust effect that reduces the availability of the solar energy by 10-20%. The third most important reason is that while the government provides subsidies for oil and electricity generation, the same subsidy is not available for the use of any non-renewable energy source (ibid). Photovoltaic cells The term ‘photovoltaic’ indicates that electricity is made from light. The most widely used material to make photovoltaic cells is silicon. There are three different varieties of photovoltaic cells; monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous

Teamwork and Motivation Essay Example for Free

Teamwork and Motivation Essay An organization should take steps that would best benefit the organization as a whole to strategize a motivation plan. It first must identify what employees value and then determine how the organization can reciprocate that what the employees want is being heard. This can be done by taking the initiative to communicate first-hand with employees so that the plan is clear and concise. In the following motivation plan, I will explain how the plan encourages high job satisfaction, low turnover, high productivity, and high-quality work. Stacy Harris (2013) tells us that â€Å"the work environment is an important talent retention tool for any workforce, but it is particularly important for the skilled labor workforce. Work environments for the high-tech, healthcare, and manufacturing industries share several common issues: long hours, high stress, and often lower pay scales than positions that may require higher levels of education†. That is why creating and structuring a plan that is intended to motivate employees is such a significant piece to retaining skilled employees. When developing this plan I had to first answer the question, what behaviors will be rewarded and how. In this organization, we manufacture and sell a commodity and although sales are high, our products and delivery services are losing credibility. We are incurring costs that are avoidable and may be losing the trust of our customers if we don’t do something fast. Therefore, employee motivation is significant in rectifying the issues at hand. Quaratul-Ain Manzoor (2012) explains that â€Å"a motivated employee is responsive of the definite goals and objectives he/she must achieve, therefore he/she directs its efforts in that direction†. To achieve high job satisfaction and high quality work, we have created a system that will reward points for incentives that will be very appealing to our employees and we found this out by taking a poll of the most desired perks. Since no one motivation plan will satisfy all employees we have taken the initiative to strategize our plan to cater to each department in different ways. Each department has goals that need to be met and when employees exceed these goals their acts will be recognized and rewarded. In our sales department, we have employees that are experiencing frequent interaction with our consumers. In order for us to know what is really happening in those interactions we have implemented a survey system that is completed by consumers in reference to how our employees handled them. Once we receive surveys we will reward those exceeding the 91 percentile rating of satisfaction with points towards obtaining a free vacation day. Also, in all departments attendance will be recognized, especially since sales and assembly are high-priority human resource areas. When an employee misses no days within a six month to one year period we will have an award presented at our annual employee recognition program. Also, employees will be recognized every quarter for outstanding service according to their points and consumer ratings. This recognition will be displayed on our STAR employee board and they will receive gift certificates to the restaurant of their choice. For those employees that do not meet those requirements, throughout the year gas cards will be given to employees who are meeting targets, showing growth. In our assembly department the key to increasing the morale is encouraging employee motivation. Keeping employees engaged at the organization will satisfy their need to feel a part of the organization and also the company’s need of high-productivity. As suggested by Philip Mirvis (2012), â€Å"there is a daunting â€Å"employee engagement gap† in business†. To close this gap at WooWoo we are striving to promote from within. Giving employees the opportunity to rise up in the assembly department to become trainers, supervisors and line leaders will be an intrinsic reward available to them. Encouraging team members to treat everyday like an interview day will keep them aware that they have the potential to move up the ranks as fast as they produce high-quality work. To effectively motivate our administration team we decided to analyze their position to the organization and what they view as perks. Since this group of employees is more focused on the processes running smoothly we have decided to reward their dedication to the company in regards to recognizing and resolving human resource issues in a timely manner. From our research the most desired perks for this group are employee recognition and developmental pay increases. Our technology department is a significant piece to the puzzle and the most difficult to chose a motivational strategy for. This department focuses on the logistics of the organization and maintaining the functioning of equipment we use. Therefore, to encourage and motivate this department we focused on the tools they need to excel. When it comes to training and recertification for this group of employees it’s really important to maintain their credibility, so we have decided to reward their outstanding services with tuition reimbursement, and free certification for every 6 months they meet and exceed their goals. To address achieving low-turnover, we as an organization have decided to create a sense of job security for our employees. We have managed to do this by offering benefits such as employee assistance programs, on-site child care, extended severance pay (should we ever have to downsize), and a defined contribution plan that constitutes the organization matching the employees contribution. Turnover can take a huge toll on an organization and we have taken the necessary steps to decrease our turnover rates and to increase our employees’ satisfaction. Methods Two methods that could be used to motivate all of the employees here are: (1) addressing their needs and wants and (2) encouraging goals to be met by praising the work they currently are doing. The most significant method would be to address the employees’ needs and wants. Once a person feels a sense of belonging; they long to know that the interested party cares about them. Employees especially have a need to know that they are not just viewed as a number that makes money for the company. Also, taking the time to recognize the work employees have already completed motivates them to do more so that they can continue to receive praise and not criticism. In return, the organization has an opportunity to yield high-satisfaction from the employees that value this type of motivation. The minimum wage worker is not motivated by the perks that are appealing to regular full-time employees. Therefore, it is a task and requirement to be creative in catering to motivate them. Three ways to motivate the minimum wage worker are: (1) encouraging participative leadership/learning, (2) employee recognition, and (3) showing them that there is potential to grow and make a career in the industry wherein they will have full benefits. These methods are used in combination to cater to what appeals to this group of workers. In today’s workforce, most minimum wage workers are in the Generation Y age group and they are not working to stay in that pay grade, so turnover is inevitable. However, using these methods to show employees how you value them can sometimes encourage them to consider making a career in the industry. The theory that best fits this scenario is the Hierarchy of Needs Theory. This theory focuses on individual needs and it places them in order of importance. In this theory the two needs classified as the higher-order needs, are closely related to the suggested methods that could be used to motivate minimum wage workers. The first need addressed in this theory, self actualization, coincides with the first suggested method of motivating minimum wage employees. This need highlights that employees have a sense of fulfillment. The need which is entitled, esteem, would benefit from the second suggestion of employee recognition. Today’s Individual Worker – Organizational Relevance In today’s organizational context the individual worker is still significant and it would not be possible to consider otherwise. Individuals are what make organizations diverse and they keep the operating procedures flowing. Today’s businesses mainly depend on teamwork and teams are made of individuals. Without individuals, organizations would produce mediocre results and have no differentiation whatsoever. I believe that is why a lot of organizations are recruiting more diverse populations so that in return they aren’t hiring employees that are like them. It is wise of organizations to value each individual in their organization especially if those individuals are growing with the organization and not benefiting from the status quo. Conclusion In conclusion, organizations truly have their work cut out for them when analyzing the best method to use when creating a motivation plan. This task is not a one-size-fits-all deal and company executives must factors in all of the key questions to reach their ultimate goal of retaining employees. Motivating employees can be a difficult task if an organization does not ask themselves the right questions. Having a clear and concise plan that is encouraged and communicated throughout the organization on a regular basis is grounds for the retaining of highly-satisfied employees.

Hydroelectric Power :: essays research papers

Hydroelectric Power   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the earliest ways to harness power is to use the powerful flow of water. On September 30th, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, the first ever dam was built. Since then, over 2,044 billion-kilowatt hours have been produced each day, worldwide. This source of energy is being used more and more days, because it is so dependable. But, how does it actually work and produce electricity? First of all, dams are located in a position where water moves swiftly and quickly. This is very important. When the water enters the dam, it goes through a series of giant pipes. At this point, the water hit the paddles of the turbine, causing it to spin. From there, the water goes to the end of the dam, and continues its regular flow in the river. To find out where the electricity comes from, we must go back to the turbines. As the turbines spin, a long, thick stick that protrudes out the side is connected to a generator filled with magnets. This is where all the electrons are produced. Lastly, the power is then flows through power lines and reaches homes and businesses in the area. There are many advantages to using dams. Fist of all, we basically have an unlimited source of water. Also, these dams are sturdy and could last for years and years. In addition, dams don’t add any pollution, which nuclear and fossil fuels do, to the environment, which is now a major problem. Lastly, it’s a reliable source. Unlike wind power and solar power, we could use it day and night and we know it will be around the next day. There are a few disadvantages towards having a dam. First of all, they are very costly. Dams have a lot of expensive equipment. Also, a dam requires a lot of space to build and powerful water. Both of these requirements make finding a place to build a dam hard to find. Worst of all, when building a dam, you might have to evacuate people to do the actual building. There is an average of 80,000 people who need to be evacuated. All in all, I think that hydroelectric dams should be the world’s main source of power. Hydroelectric Power :: essays research papers Hydroelectric Power   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the earliest ways to harness power is to use the powerful flow of water. On September 30th, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, the first ever dam was built. Since then, over 2,044 billion-kilowatt hours have been produced each day, worldwide. This source of energy is being used more and more days, because it is so dependable. But, how does it actually work and produce electricity? First of all, dams are located in a position where water moves swiftly and quickly. This is very important. When the water enters the dam, it goes through a series of giant pipes. At this point, the water hit the paddles of the turbine, causing it to spin. From there, the water goes to the end of the dam, and continues its regular flow in the river. To find out where the electricity comes from, we must go back to the turbines. As the turbines spin, a long, thick stick that protrudes out the side is connected to a generator filled with magnets. This is where all the electrons are produced. Lastly, the power is then flows through power lines and reaches homes and businesses in the area. There are many advantages to using dams. Fist of all, we basically have an unlimited source of water. Also, these dams are sturdy and could last for years and years. In addition, dams don’t add any pollution, which nuclear and fossil fuels do, to the environment, which is now a major problem. Lastly, it’s a reliable source. Unlike wind power and solar power, we could use it day and night and we know it will be around the next day. There are a few disadvantages towards having a dam. First of all, they are very costly. Dams have a lot of expensive equipment. Also, a dam requires a lot of space to build and powerful water. Both of these requirements make finding a place to build a dam hard to find. Worst of all, when building a dam, you might have to evacuate people to do the actual building. There is an average of 80,000 people who need to be evacuated. All in all, I think that hydroelectric dams should be the world’s main source of power.

Australian Conscription in Vietnam War Essay

The conscription issue during the second Indo – China war in the 1960’s tore apart the fabric of Australian society and resulted in divisions in all sections of the community. There were many reasons for Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War, including the allegiance commitments of South-East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). The introduction of conscription illustrates the main purpose of Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War. The conscription issues and the war itself caused social division in reaction to the Vietnam War. In 1964 compulsory National Service was introduced under the National Service Act. The Defence Act was amended in May 1965 to provide that National Servicemen could be obliged to serve overseas, a provision that had been applied only once before – during World War Two. Paragraph one The Australian government supported the USA involvement in the Vietnam War, and Australia felt it was imperative that the North Vietnam have a proper defensive treaty, as a number of other countries felt the same way, so SEATO was created to deal with this situation. SEATO was a much stronger agreement to support Australia’s security needs in the Pacific. It also helped to highlight the growing division between Australia and Britain and the new dependence on the United States (US). † (N/A, The ANZUS Treaty and SEATO Alliance, 2013, Skwirk. com. au Interactive Schooling) Australia joined the SEATO because it could support Australia in the Pacific. As America joined in the Vietnam War, A ustralia supported them to join the war as well. The Australian government feared the idea of communism overtaking their nation, this fear lead to the decision of forcing their young men to be conscripted to join the war in South Vietnam. Conscription was a tremendous issue for the families of the young men who fought in the war because many males were being conscripted sent into the Vietnam War without any choice or opinion. As a result of the fear of communism, Australia decided to support the US to join the Vietnam War and fight for the South Vietnam. SEATO was one of the reasons that Australia joined the war, because it was a much stronger agreement to support Australian security of the needs in the Pacific, Australia joined the SEATO to against the North Vietnam. As Australia got involved the war, the conscription has leaded to the depressions and social divisions in the Australian society. Paragraph two The purpose of the second Indo-China war of conscription was to avoid communism spreading to Australia. This caused Australian men and women to become infuriated and create groups against conscription. Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) was keen to get more supporters of his actions in Vietnam, to give them legitimacy. This was during the Cold War, both North and South Vietnam tried to gain the moral upper hand over the other in a way that does not happen today. â€Å"You have in us [the Australian Liberal delegation] not merely an understanding friend but one staunch in the belief of the need for your presence in Vietnam. We are not here because of our friendship, we are here because, like you, we believe it is right to be there and, like you, we believe American forces should stay there as long as it seems necessary to achieve the purpose of the South Vietnamese Government and the purpose that we join in formulating and progressing together. And so, sir, in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader, I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend that will be all the way with LBJ. ( Wikipedia, A Daily Updating Blog of Important Events In History That Never Occurred Today, 2004, Today In Alternate History) From this speech -‘All The Way with LBJ’, to show that LBJ tried to convince other Australia to join the war with them together, and America knew that Australia would support them, and Australia had training teams in Vietnam before 1965, just as the Am erica did. The main reason that Australia was afraid of the communism was the domino theory, the countries of South-East Asia was like dominoes. If one ‘fell’ to communism, this would lead to the fall of another, and so on until all were ruled by communists. It is evidenced that Australia was very fearful of communism and of growing Asian power, by offering Australia’s full unquestioning support of the United States (US). Australia’s foreign policy is basically to secure protection by cuddling up to a more powerful friend; since World War Two America has been Australia’s powerful friend. Australia supported America by helping them in conflicts such as joining the Vietnam War was one of the prices that Australia paid for the protection. Paragraph three Conscription led to people combining together and creating groups to revolt against the conscription and Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War. The social divisions appeared in all sections of the Australian community. Conscription started as choosing 20-year-old males in Australia in 1964, but then it turned into conscripting teenagers. In 1964 compulsory National Service for 20-year-old males was introduced under the National Service Act. The selection of conscripts was made by a sortation or lottery draw based on date of birth, and conscripts were reduced to give two years’ continuous full-time service, followed by a further three years on the active reserve list. Young men who were subject to the conscription lottery also formed their own anti-conscription organization, the Youth Campaign Against Conscription. Like Save Our Sons, it spread to other states – New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia. (Wikipedia, 11 March 2013, Conscription in Australia) In 1965 a group of concerned Australian women who had ‘lost’ their husbands and sons joined together and created the Save Our Sons (S. O. S) which was established in Sydney with other branches later formed in Wollongong, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Newcastle and Adelaide. In the same year, young men who were subject to the conscription lottery also created their own organization the Youth Campaign Against Conscription (YCAC). One of the social divisions would be conscription affect people’s daily routine, and people were being anti-war and anti-conscription. Overall, the governments’ fear of communism spreading into Australia was why they chose to continue supporting the America. This is most likely because the war and conscription were mostly fused into one without taking account of a nuanced position that addresses the two issues separately. The importance of keeping the two issues separate is that the Government would have been more credible if it had simply pursued the war and not sent conscript. Conclusion In conclusion, conscription issue during the Vietnam War in the 1960’s put Australian society into the social divisions in all parts of Australian community, especially in 1966 people started to stand out and combined into organizations to against it. The reason that they supported and followed the United States (US) to join the Vietnam War would be Australian Government was afraid of the spreading of the communism. Australia supported the defence of the people in South Vietnam and intellectual consistency to accept the use of conscription in a war that was supposed to be fought in defence of freedom; instead the war got extended.

Malaysia Chinese Culture Essay

Malaysia’s cultural mosaic is marked by many different cultures, but several in particular have had especially lasting influence on the country. Chief among these is the ancient Malay culture, and the cultures of Malaysia’s two most prominent trading partners throughout history–the Chinese, and the Indians. These three groups are joined by a dizzying array of indigenous tribes, many of which live in the forests and coastal areas of Borneo. Although each of these cultures has vigorously maintained its traditions and community structures, they have also blended together to create contemporary Malaysia’s uniquely diverse heritage. Populated by the three (3) major races found in Asia, Malaysia culture is a melange of Indian, Malay and Chinese influence The Spring Festival is the most important festival for the Chinese people and is when all family members get together, just like Christmas in the West. All people living away from home go back, becoming the busiest time for transportation systems of about half a month from the Spring Festival. Airports, railway stations and long-distance bus stations are crowded with home returnees. The Chinese character â€Å"fu† (meaning blessing or happiness) is a must. The character put on paper can be pasted normally or upside down, for in Chinese the â€Å"reversed fu† is homophonic with â€Å"fu comes†, both being pronounced as â€Å"fudaole. † What’s more, two big red lanterns can be raised on both sides of the front door. Red paper-cuttings can be seen on window glass and brightly colored New Year paintings with auspicious meanings may be put on the wall. Waking up on New Year, everybody dresses up. First they extend greetings to their parents. Then each child will get money as a New Year gift, wrapped up in red paper. People in northern China will eat jiaozi, or dumplings, for breakfast, as they think â€Å"jiaozi† in sound means â€Å"bidding farewell to the old and ushering in the new†. Also, the shape of the dumpling is like gold ingot from ancient China. So people eat them and wish for money and treasure. Burning fireworks was once the most typical custom on the Spring Festival. People thought the spluttering sound could help drive away evil spirits. However, such an activity was completely or partially forbidden in big cities once the government took security, noise and pollution factors into consideration. As a replacement, some buy tapes with firecracker sounds to listen to, some break little balloons to get the sound too, while others buy firecracker handicrafts to hang in the living room. People in different places follow various customs, but all show their love and longing for a better life. Today people will enjoy the full moon and eat moon cakes on that day. The moon looks extremely round, big and bright on the 15th day of each lunar month. People selected the August 15 to celebrate because it is a season when crops and fruits are all ripe and weather pleasant. On the Mid-Autumn Festival, all family members or friends meet outside, putting food on tables and looking up at the sky while talking about life. How splendid a moment it is! | There are many legends about the evolution of the festival, the most popular of which is in commemoration of Qu Yuan. People will dragon boat racing, eating zongzi and drinking realgar wine on that day. On Dragon Boat Festival, parents also need to dress their children up with a perfume pouch. They first sew little bags with colorful silk cloth, then fill the bags with perfumes or herbal medicines, and finally string them with silk threads. The perfume pouch will be hung around the neck or tied to the front of a garment as an ornament. They are said to be able to ward off evil. | The Qingming Festival sees a combination of sadness and happiness. This is the most important day of sacrifice. Both the Han and minority ethnic groups at this time offer sacrifices to their ancestors and sweep the tombs of the deceased. Also, they will not cook on this day and only cold food is served. On each Qingming Festival, all cemeteries are crowded with people who came to sweep tombs and offer sacrifices. Traffic on the way to the cemeteries becomes extremely jammed. The customs have been greatly simplified today. After slightly sweeping the tombs, people offer food, flowers and favorites of the dead, then burn incense and paper money and bow before the memorial tablet.

Definitions and Examples of Swear Words

Definitions and Examples of Swear Words A swear word is a word or phrase thats generally considered blasphemous, obscene, vulgar, or otherwise offensive. Also known as  swearing, bad word, obscene word, dirty word, and four-letter word. Swear words serve many different functions in different social contexts, notes Janet Holmes. They may express annoyance, aggression and insult, for instance, or they may express solidarity and friendliness (An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2013). EtymologyFrom Old English, take an oath Examples and Observations Spock: Your use of language has altered since our arrival. It is currently laced with, shall we say, more colorful metaphors, double dumbass on you and so forth.Captain Kirk: Oh, you mean the profanity?Spock: Yes.Captain Kirk: Well, thats simply the way they talk here. Nobody pays any attention to you unless you swear every other word. Youll find it in all the literature of the period.(Leonard Nimoy and William Shatner in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, 1986)Uses of Swear WordsA final puzzle about swearing is the crazy range of circumstances in which we do it. There is cathartic swearing, as when we hit our thumb with a hammer or knock over a glass of beer. There are imprecations, as when we suggest a label or offer advice to someone who has cut us off in traffic. There are vulgar terms for everyday things and activities, as when Bess Truman was asked to get the president to say fertilizer instead of manure and she replied, You have no idea how long it took me to get him to say manure . There are figures of speech that put obscene words to other uses, such as the barnyard epithet for insincerity, the army acronym snafu, and the gynecological-flagellative term for uxorial dominance. And then there are the adjective-like expletives that salt the speech and split the words of soldiers, teenagers, Australians, and others affecting a breezy speech style.(Steven Pinker, The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window Into Human Nature. Viking, 2007) Social SwearingWhy do we swear? The answer to this question depends on the approach you take. As a linguistnot a psychologist, neurologist, speech pathologist or any other -istI see swearing as meaningfully patterned verbal behaviour that readily lends itself to a functional analysis. Pragmatically, swearing can be understood in terms of the meanings it is taken to have and what it achieves in any particular circumstance. . . .Typically, a social swear word originates as one of the bad words but becomes conventionalised in a recognisably social form. Using swear words as loose intensifiers contributes to the easy-going, imprecise nature of informal talk among in-group members. . . . In sum, this is jokey, cruisy, relaxing talk in which participants oil the wheels of their connection as much by how they talk as what they talk about.(Ruth Wajnryb, Language Most Foul. Allen Unwin, 2005)Secular Swearing[I]t would appear that in Western society the major shifts in the focus of swearing h ave been from religious matters (more especially the breaching of the commandment against taking the Lords name in vain) to sexual and bodily functions, and from opprobrious insults, such as coolie and kike. Both of these trends reflect the increasing secularization of Western society.(Geoffrey Hughes, Swearing: A Social History of Foul Language, Oaths and Profanity in English. Blackwell, 1991) George Carlin on Bad WordsThere are four hundred thousand words in the English language and there are seven of them you cant say on television. What a ratio that is! Three hundred ninety three thousand nine hundred and ninety three . . . to seven! They must really be bad. Theyd have to be outrageous to be separated from a group that large. All of you over here . . . You seven, you bad words.Thats what they told us, you remember? Thats a bad word. What? There are no bad words. Bad thoughts, bad intentions, but no bad words.(George Carlin with Tony Hendra, Last Words. Simon Schuster, 2009)David Camerons Jokey, Blokey InterviewDavid Camerons jokey, blokey interview . . . on Absolute Radio this morning is a good example of what can happen when politicians attempt to be down with the kidsor in this case, with the thirtysomethings. . . .Asked why he didnt use the social networking website Twitter, the Tory leader said: The trouble with Twitter, the instantness of ittoo many twits might ma ke a twat. . . .[T]he Tory leaders aides were in defensive mode afterwards, pointing out that twat was not a swear word under radio guidelines.(Haroon Siddique, Sweary Cameron Illustrates Dangers of Informal Interview. The Guardian, July 29, 2009) S***r W***s[N]ever use asterisks, or such silliness as b-, which are just a cop out, as Charlotte Brontà « recognised: The practice of hinting by single letters those expletives with which profane and violent people are wont to garnish their discourse, strikes me as a proceeding which, however well meant, is weak and futile. I cannot tell what good it doeswhat feeling it spareswhat horror it conceals.(David Marsh and Amelia Hodsdon, Guardian Style, 3rd ed. Guardian Books, 2010)Supreme Court Rulings on Swear WordsThe Supreme Court’s last major case concerning broadcast indecency, F.C.C. v. Pacifica Foundation in 1978, upheld the commission’s determination that George Carlin’s classic seven dirty words monologue, with its deliberate, repetitive and creative use of vulgarities, was indecent. But the court left open the question of whether the use of an occasional expletive could be punished.The case decided Tuesday, Federal Communications Commission v. Fox Televisi on Stations, No. 07-582, arose from two appearances by celebrities on the Billboard Music Awards.Justice Scalia read the passages at issue from the bench, though he substituted suggestive shorthand for the dirty words.The first involved Cher, who reflected on her career in accepting an award in 2002: I’ve also had critics for the last 40 years saying I was on my way out every year. Right. So F-em. (In his opinion, Justice Scalia explained that Cher metaphorically suggested a sexual act as a means of expressing hostility to her critics.)The second passage came in an exchange between Paris Hilton and Nicole Richie in 2003 in which Ms. Richie discussed in vulgar terms the difficulties in cleaning cow manure off a Prada purse.Reversing its policy on such fleeting expletives, the commission said in 2006 that both broadcasts were indecent. It did not matter, the commission said, that some of the offensive words did not refer directly to sexual or excretory functions. Nor did it mat ter that the cursing was isolated and apparently impromptu. . . .In reversing that decision, Justice Scalia said the change in policy was rational and therefore permissible. It was certainly reasonable, he wrote, to determine that it made no sense to distinguish between literal and nonliteral uses of offensive words, requiring repetitive use to render only the latter indecent.Justice John Paul Stevens, dissenting, wrote that not every use of a swear word connoted the same thing. As any golfer who has watched his partner shank a short approach knows, Justice Stevens wrote, it would be absurd to accept the suggestion that the resultant four-letter word uttered on the golf course describes sex or excrement and is therefore indecent.It is ironic, to say the least, Justice Stevens went on, that while the F.C.C. patrols the airwaves for words that have a tenuous relationship with sex or excrement, commercials broadcast during prime-time hours frequently ask viewers whether they are battli ng erectile dysfunction or are having trouble going to the bathroom.(Adam Liptak, Supreme Court Upholds F.C.C.’s Shift to a Harder Line on Indecency on the Air. The New York Times, April 28, 2009) The Lighter Side of Swear WordsTell me, son, the anxious mother said, what did your father say when you told him youd wrecked his new Corvette?Shall I leave out the swear words? the son asked.Of course.He didnt say anything.(Steve Allen, Steve Allens Private Joke File. Three Rivers Press, 2000) Alternate Spellings: swearword, swear-word

25 Names of Fabrics, Wools, and Leathers Derived from Place Names

25 Names of Fabrics, Wools, and Leathers Derived from Place Names 25 Names of Fabrics, Wools, and Leathers Derived from Place Names 25 Names of Fabrics, Wools, and Leathers Derived from Place Names By Mark Nichol This post lists and defines terms for apparel materials that have in common that the terms are derived from place names. 1. angora: a type of wool from Angora rabbits, which originated near Ankara (previously Angora), Turkey 2. Bedford cord: a corduroy-like fabric, named after Bedford, England, or New Bedford, Massachusetts 3. calico: a type of cloth originally from Calicut, India 4. cambric: a type of cloth originally from Cambrai, France 5. cashmere: a type of wool and a woolen fabric from Kashmir goats, which come from the Kashmir region of India 6. chino cloth: a cloth originating in China (the name is Spanish for â€Å"Chinese†) 7. Cordovan leather: a type of shoe leather first produced in Cordoba, Spain 8. damask: a type of fabric named after Damascus, Syria 9. denim: a type of fabric originally called serge de Nà ®mes, or â€Å"serge of Nà ®mes,† after Nà ®mes, a town in France 10. dungaree: a type of denim cloth originating in DongrÄ «, India; pants or overalls made from this fabric are called dungarees 11. duffel: a cloth first made in Duffel, Belgium 12. Harris tweed: a type of handwoven tweed cloth originating on the island of Lewis and Harris and adjacent islands in Scotland (the name of the cloth type tweed is coincidental with the name of the river Tweed) 13. Holland (or Holland cloth): a type of linen originally made in various parts of Europe, including the province of Holland in the Netherlands 14. jaconet: a fabric originally from Puri, India (the word is derived from the name of the city’s Jagannath Temple) 15. jean: a type of fabric originating in Genoa, Italy 16. jersey: a type of knit fabric originating on the island of Jersey, next to France (but a dependency of the United Kingdom) 17. Mackinaw cloth: a woolen cloth used for thick, warm jackets (called Mackinaws or Macs) originally favored by lumberjacks and then hunters and fishermen in the Mackinac (or Mackinaw) region of Michigan 18. madras: a lightweight cloth originally from Madras, India (now called Chennai) 19. muslin: a lightweight fabric originally from Mosul, Iraq 20. Morocco leather: a type of leather originally from Moroccan goats 21. nankeen: a type of fabric originating in Nanjing, China (previously called Nanking or Nankin); also refers to pants made of this material, as well as the pale buff or yellow color of the fabric, a type of porcelain originating in the city, and a type of lace (often called nankins) and part of the name of numerous animals and plants featuring this color 22. osnaburg: a coarse cloth originally made in Osnabrà ¼ck, Germany 23. suede: a type of leather made from the underside of animal skins, originally referenced in the French phrase gants de Suà ¨de (â€Å"gloves from Sweden†); similar-looking fabrics are referred to as â€Å"sueded silk† and so on 24. tulle: a type of fabric originating in Tulle, France 25. worsted: a type of wool whose name is derived from that of Worstead, one of the villages from which it originated; also, the name of a type of yarn and a category of yarn weight Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Regarding Re:Proved vs. ProvenEnglish Grammar 101: Prepositions

The State of the Iranian Oil Industry and Its Role in Irans Economy Case Study

The State of the Iranian Oil Industry and Its Role in Irans Economy - Case Study Example This research will begin with the statement that Iran's economic reliance on the oil industry has been stronger than ever as demonstrated by the steady trend in domestic demand and the government’s effort to counter the adverse impact of its economic isolation. An increase in its energy output is seen as the only way to solve the issues it currently faces. This focus has led to several sustainability challenges that require immediate attention if the country is to achieve a viable economy in the long-term. Iran belongs to the top five oil-producing countries in the world. The International Energy Agency reported that in 2013, the country produced 2.5 million barrels per day and about 1.2 million barrels were exported. For this reason, the oil industry remains a backbone of the Iranian economy. It generates revenues that represent at least 18.7 percent of the country's gross domestic product and claim 85 percent of the country's total export and foreign currency earnings. Repor ts indicate that high oil prices in the past decades enabled Iran to accumulate almost $60 billion in foreign exchange reserves. The focus in oil production, however, has led or has aggravated three important sustainability challenges: air pollution; damage to water resources; and the environmental damage stemming from potential conflict. Air pollution remains the leading environmental problem in the country. It is caused by vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents. Particularly, combustion of vehicular traffic dominates pollutants. In Tehran, for example, they contribute to around 80 percent of air pollution.

Surveillance Soceity (pro and cons) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Surveillance Soceity (pro and cons) - Essay Example This essay therefore looks at two sides of an argument about the pros and cons of having surveillance society based on the theory of surveillance and privacy. On the whole, those who argue for surveillance society are those who take the moral side of the debate, having the main conclusion that the guarantee for having the right thing done should come ahead of any personal and individual rights and privileges.4 The major reason that is cited to back this argument is that the world becomes safer and get criminals accounting for their deeds when there is maximum surveillance.5 Typical evidence that can be used to support this is the case of Trayvon Martin who was fatally shot by George Zimmerman. Indeed in the course of the trial, evidence from eye witnesses could not prove credible enough for the eventual judgment to be accepted by both sides. This is because there were variations in accounts given as to what happened.6 In such a case, a person reasoning from a moral perspective would just wish there was a means to hit rewind, something that can only be made possible if any of the two people involved wore a personal recording device.7 From the above, the premise stated is that a surveillance society is one that guarantees the safety of the people and protects them from the hands of evil people who would want to commit crimes and have their ways with them. With the example give, an unstated assumption is that should all people wear personal recording devices, the issue of evidence in court would be more credible. By inference, our current society will become more secure and most forms of legal tussles that take years to hear in court would become a thing of the past.8 As the legal process functions largely on evidence, it is expected that such forms of evidence that come through surveillance equipment in society would set the pace for having a better evidence based judgment.9 The other side of the argument which is against surveillance society is commonly upheld by

Industrial Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Industrial Economics - Essay Example In fact in many markets there exist some dominating firms which play the roles of market leader. These large firms in order to maintain their market share create some barriers for new firm to enter into the market. (Baldwin, 1995) Barriers to entry into a particular industry have immense potential to diminish or entirely prevent the normal mechanism of that industry in attracting new firms towards it. To negatively affect competition in an industry along with the welfare of consumers, it is not always necessary for entry barriers to prevent firms from making their entry into that industry forever. In fact, very often these barriers can create significant effect on the performance of the market only by retarding the arrival of new entrants into it. It is of course true that consumer will suffer from monopoly level pricing for long if entry barriers prevent firms from entering into the market indefinitely, but along with this, it is also true that consumers will also suffer if decline in prices from increasing competition is delayed by delayed entry of new firms due to entry barriers. (Geroski, 1995) The first important contribution in the area of discussion on entry barriers was made by Bain (1956). Bain made an attempt to define an entry barrier in terms of its effect on firms’ profitability. According to Bain if entry barriers exist in an industry then existing firms will be able to earn profits beyond their normal level without inducing other firms to make an entry into the market. Bain had argued that entry of new firms into an industry is determined by the level of advantages that the existing firm in the industry enjoys over the potential new entrants. He made a comparison between established firms’ profit prior to the entry of potential entrants and post entry profit level of new entrants. According to Bain, there will be an entry barrier if an entrant fails to attain the profit levels that established firms used to enjoy before the arrival of

Leaders are Born, Not Made Essay

Leaders are Born, Not Made Essay Assignment Topic-2: Leaders are born, not made. Discuss the statement with reference to leadership framework currently in us in organisations. Introduction: The establishment of relationship between followers and leaders that focus on real changes and outcomes that reflects through shared purposes is basically leadership. Leadership also involves in creating change not only in maintaining status quote. Another leadership important feature is to bring people and make them understanding to come together around a common vision and to bring change about desired future. In many aspects, the importance of leadership is vital without it families, communities and as well as organisations would go down apart. In other sense, the way of improving efficiency, morale, customer service and performance is the critical aspect of leadership. It is also essential for the organisations to handle critical situation and lead that effectively and only a good leader with good leadership ability can lead team successfully. There are different styles of leadership basically it is way the person deals with that in order to stay alive in his or her position. Thes e are authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire. In authoritarian leadership style, leader holds all the power and responsibilities. In this style, employees are assigned to specific task by the leader and expect to get it done orderly. In laissez-faire leadership style, leader gives power to employees. There are two or more alternative decisions taken by leader, employees can choose any of them from there it depends up to them. In democratic leadership styles, leader gives more importance on employees and tries to encourage them and shows attention to individuals. Current structure of leadership: A good considerate of leadership requires a gathering of ideas and we regrettably cannot fallback on a simple theory to explain it. We will have to discuss that how leadership can fit within the organisation instead of engaging in conversation. The organisations have a structure to work form through reaching an agreement about leadership. Organisation must have to be comprehensive for everyone to become a leader. Leaders need to be relational, it would only be possible because of the reason there is a spiritual side to leadership. Leaders must have strong spiritual convictions and beliefs to establish a base for their personal value systems. This translates into relinquishing one-self to others and it works best when the leader is compelled to work on things that represent his or her deepest values. These values can be moral based on values that are outside the organization or ethical values within the organization. Therefore, leaders must be very much grounded in dealing with valu es -struggling with a tension between change and stability what works and what does not work.  [1]   Arguments in support of Leaders are born not made: Historically there are many leadership approaches that linked with different theories of leadership. It can be discussed through nature verses nature deliberate. The Great man theory and Trait Theory represented the best nature argument related to above statement. Great Man theory of leadership: 1900s: This is the earliest theories of leadership. At that time most of the researchers believed that leaders are born, not made. In Great Man theory, describes that the main secrets of a great leader lies in being born great. It gives importance on the study of all the great leaders who were great, may be they are from aristocracy or from the lower classes but they had the opportunities to lead. By finding out those people who did great things such as Nepolean, Hitler, Curchill if we go further back then Lord Krisna, Gesus and Hazrat Mohammad were very easy to point out them. According to Great Man theory, it considers that leaders must have inherent capacity for leadership that leaders are born not made. This theory often depict great leaders are brave, mythic and intended to rise leadership when needed. Leaders must have some qualities like good commanding power, cleverness, good character, courage, self-possession; fierceness and expressiveness by born that cant be possessed through learning or through particular taught programmes. Trait Theories of Leadership: 1900s-1940: Trait theories are similar to Great Man theories in some ways. It assumes that leaders must possess general traits or personal features that they get by born and common to all and create them better matched to leadership. In Trait Theory of leadership just tried to find traits of well-known leader that were frequent. Sometimes Trait theories recognize exacting personality and behavioural features shared by leaders. This approach was based on the scheme that is individuality and personal intrinsic worth that distinguish successful leader form everyone else. In 1994, Yukl conducted research on traits and skills and linked to organisational effectiveness. These were: energy and pressure patience, self-possession, inner locus of control, emotional maturity, worthiness, supremacy inspiration, reaching orientation, need for affiliation. Arguments opposite to Leaders are born not made: The other leadership theories explain social and contextual perspective like Behavioural Theories, Situational Theories, and Normative theories, transactional and transformational Theories. The Behavioural theories assume that leaders are made not born. Mainly Behavioural theory focuses on leaders action not upon internal state and mental qualities. Behavioural Theories of Leadership: In this theory mainly focus on behaviour of leaders in the direction of the followers and this became a leading mode of leadership approaching within the organisation. Diverse patterns of manners were grouped together and categorized as styles. These activities of management through training became very famous. Basically these styles are- Task concern: Here leaders give important on objectives accomplishment through high level productivity, and ways to manage people and activities for achieving those objectives. People concern: Here leaders focus on their followers as people what their needs, interests, what their problems, how it can be development and so on. They are not simply units of production or means to an end. Directive leadership: This style is considered by leaders make decisions for others and desiring all the followers or subordinates will pursue that directions. Participative leadership: Here leaders take part in decision-making by sharing among others. (Wright 1996: 36-7) Situational Theories of Leadership: In situational theories of leadership gives more importance on the different situations like where the task to be accomplished, fit surrounded by personalities, power and perceptions. Effectiveness of leadership relies on those situations. These situational theories are also called Contingency theories because this Theory is reliant upon the requirements or the status of the situations. The Hersey Blanchard Theory: This situational theory developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard and it focuses on activity and operational environment of the organisation. Their main approach was that followers will always get favour from the leader about their willingness to do the job. In this approach leaders have to understand about the followers properly and have to identify their stage of development and according to that apply the leadership style. With taking help from Ohio State studies and develop four leadership styles that is available for managers- Directing or telling Coaching or selling Participating or supporting Delegating Directing or telling: Job responsibilities is defined by the leader and inform to followers about when to do that and where to do it and how can it be done. Coaching: Its a two way communication here leader gives supportive direction to followers and sometimes ask for ideas or suggestion from followers as well. Supporting or participating: The leader and follower share in decision accordingly to achieve a maximum values like what will be the best to compete with high worth job Delegating: Followers get little support from the leaders. Implications of this theory: one problem is that it does not matter how hard leaders try but they are against to change from one style to another. + Supportive Coaching Supportive behaviour Delegating Telling Directive behaviour + Figure: Different styles 1960s-70: In Contingency/situational theory argues-what leaders perform that can be determined by that situations and that behaviors must be related with that environmental situations in hand. A good situational leader can only apply different leadership styles with the changing situations. The best action taken by the leader depends on of the leader depends on a range of situational factors. How the model works simply to achieve results: Identification of detailed job and task Asses present performance Corresponding leader response Different leadership styles could influence by the wide range of variables depending on the different environmental situations and it creates an impact on leader behaviour, in which leader can function. There are some critical contingencies like organisational volume, complexity in task, maturity of worker and so many others. According to situational theory, situational factors are limited and vary according to that contingency and specified behaviour of leader can only work in certain kind of situations not for all. There are three most prominent theories of contingency- Path-Goal theory Feidlers Contingency theory The Vroom-Yettons model Path-Goal theory: In this theory according to House; 1971: mainly focus on leaders motivational function and it can be enhanced by increasing individual payoffs to subordinates for work goal achievement, gain personal satisfaction by escalating opportunities. According to these theories key occupier is that the effectiveness can be measured through the behaviours of different leaders that will be influenced by situational variables. Fiedlers Contingency theory: In 1971, Feidler proposed clarification on that how group performance can be affected through the relations of leadership orientation, group setting and job characteristics. Leaders situation can measure though various extents like relationships between leaders and members, structure of job and position power. The relationship between leader and member: This refers to how the leader is liked by the group members. When good relationship exists between leaders and members then all are get high satisfaction in work and organisations values is achieved through individual values. If the relation is going badly then there is lack of common trust. Another important term group cohesiveness, it is very difficult to make all the employees work together when it low. The Vroom-Yettons model of leadership: This model is widely used in the development of leadership in corporate centre and also gets enough support from practitioners. The most important aspects of this model is that legitimates both the autocratic and democratic leader behaviour and matching that is suitable in meticulous situations. This model also provides fruitful information about what would be the perfect time of using groups or opposed to personality decision making. This model has some limitations like leaders are always have to take decision in choosing of leadership styles, it considers each decision in term of situation but it does not depend on previous factor. Transactional Theories: This approach of leadership was most popular at that time and this is defined by Gibson, Ivancevich and Donnelly. It has some similar features with situational theories. Its a kind of leadership where leaders find out what the need of followers to achieve organisational performance as a means of rewards. In this theory has several assumptions like it motivates people through reward and get punishment for the cause of mistakes, followers know what they have to do according to direction for the purpose of getting rewards. Sometimes they use management by exception techniques. The transactional leader sometimes use Path-Goal theory as a framework but leader take all the responsibilities for setting goals, mission for gaining effectiveness. Transformational Theories: Followers are motivated and inspired by the transformation leaders and to achieve results more than desired. This is the most recent theories of leadership. This leadership ability based on different personality factors like charisma, person attention and rational recreation. There are several effects of transformational leadership defined by Bernard Bass and Bruce Avolio (1994) .These are as follows:- Motivating others to involve them in work from new perception Consciousness about what the mission of the organisation Developing ability of others to achieve performance at exceeds level Involved in determining the benefits of the organisations by motivating the beyond their attention as they could have. Theory X and Theory Y of Leadership: In 1960, Douglus and McGregor described this leadership theory that the activities of leaders are based on their thinking and considerations about the individuals at work. He also described the behaviour of leaders in two contrasting sets of bliefs.These are theory X and Theory Y. The assumptions of Theory X: Average individual do not like work and avoid if they can Individual need to keep pushing for achieving desired objectives by directing, controlling and threatening through giving punishment This approach can take actions The assumptions of Theory Y: People will work in their own responsibilities and control according to how they are committed. In common people have some qualities like creativeness and imaginativeness The average individuals are not only accepted but look for objectives. Charismatic Leadership: This theory is defined by Max Weber and mainly focuses on leaders charismatic characteristics. Through these characteristics leaders influence the followers and they can change anything. It is not possible to access these qualities by ordinary people generally they are extraordinary. They are like magic leaders they got special power to handle complex situations. Leadership models: Leaders how they act and the way how they do that can be understood by the help of Leadership models. There are two models: the Four Framework Approach and the Managerial Grid.  [2]   Four Framework Approach In the Four Framework Approach, Bolman and Deal (1991) propose that leaders exhibit leadership behaviours in one of four types of frameworks: Structural, Human Resource, Political, or Symbolic. According to this model, leaders can be place into one of these four different frameworks and there are times when one approach is proper and times when it would not be. It also describes that styles may either efficient or inefficient depending on situations. It would be better not to rely on one of the four different approaches. It can explain by an example, for the period of major organisational change; Structural leadership style is more preferable than symbolic leadership style; when an organisation need strong growth at that time symbolic approach is far better than structural approach. So we need to be aware about using these approaches and its limitations. Structural Framework In structural framework, leaders are focuses on arrangement, strategy, environment, execution, experimentation, and alteration. It also describes the leaders as a social architect and their leadership is design and analyse. Human Resource Framework In human resource framework describes the effectual circumstances of leadership; the leader is a vehicle and servant whose leadership style is sustain, advocating, and empowerment. In other ways for an inefficient condition of leadership, the leader is a soft touch, whose leadership style is abandonment and deceit. Human Resource approaches leaders have faith in people and share their belief; they are perceptible and available; they empower, increase involvement, support, share their information, and move in decision making along into the organization. Political Framework In political framework, the leader is a campaigner, whose leadership style is alliance and building which best describes an effective leadership situation. In a useless leadership situation, the leader is a hustler; leadership style of leader is manoeuvring. Political leaders make clear what they desire and what they can get through assessing the allotment of power and interests; they assemble linkages to other stakeholders, use wiles first, and then use negotiation and oppression only if necessary. Symbolic Framework In symbolic approach gives priority on leadership style that leaders use for inspiration as an efficient situation. In other sense of inefficient leadership situation is leaders are fool and their styles of leadership is like smoke. Managerial Grid In 1985 according to the Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid, also recognized as the Leadership Grid describes two axes. Vertically it describes concern for people and horizontally describes concern for task. Both of these axes have range from 0 to 9. Majority of people plunge somewhere close to the centre of the two axes Middle of the Road. People can notch up on the extreme end of the scales by going to the extremes. There are four types of leadership styles by reaching to extremes; that is, Authoritarian strong on everyday jobs, puny on people related works Country Club strong on people related works, weak on everyday jobs Impoverished weak on everyday jobs, weak on people related works Team Leader strong on everyday jobs, strong on people related works Authoritarian Leader People who get this ranking are very much task related and are rigid on their workers. These types of leader always expect people to get work done about what they exactly said with no issue or debate. Team Leader These types of individual lead positively and influence all the team members to reach in highest potential, both as team members and as people. They encourage the team to reach team goals as efficiently as potential, while also working diligently to make stronger the bonds between the various members. Productive teams are lead by them successfully. Qualities of people in leadership positions: There are three levels of leadership positions in an organisation. These are strategic level, operational level and team level. A good leader should possess some good qualities to handle this position effectively and tactfully. These are as follows:- Good character Good personality Devotion Self confidence-this will help them to identify subordinates talent basically that will help the business to go up Good communication capability- it is very important for any business to run effectively without this it is impossible Good learner-it will help them to develop Risk taking ability Problem solving capability Relationships-this qualities need to maintain positive relationship in all areas Creative minded-this qualities help them to bring any change when there is esteem needs in order to sustain in the business for achieving high level of success Positive attitudes Servant leadership-decision making ability through considering the opinion attractiveness with business vision by stimulating the followers Bravery Innovative Good motivation power Leadership development initiatives: There are several practices which describe the best leadership development initiatives. Firstly, the good commitment between top leaders and managers and be highly regarded, associated with business strategy and resolute on the right business issues. Secondly, through the identification of successful leadership competencies. Thirdly, leadership development is more important than training of management. If leaders are effective in organisation then all levels of people in organisation steered up. Fourthly, need to apply leadership all levels of management. Fifthly, leadership development programme must include ongoing approach like assignments for development, meetings with overseas counterparts, case studies etc. Finally, the successful incorporation of talent management.  [3]   Examples of Starbucks company leadership: In the history of Starbucks growth Howard Schultz was the greatest leader. In 1982, when Starbucks was going to decline after introducing in the market. At that time Howard Schultz was get appointed as a new CEO for Starbucks and accelerated the whole to become a global brand worldwide. In my opinion he just transforms everything within a short time. He made people understand that selling a cup of coffee in Starbucks is a lifestyle familiarity, unlike any other cafà ©. He applied leadership contingency approach to make changes in organisational settings. Under Schultzs leadership, the company has achieved a number of milestones. Starbucks was one of the first privately held companies in North America to offer two unique benefits to its partners (employees). He mainly focused on customers and made them understand their needs.  [4]   Conclusion: At the end we can conclude by summarising on that leaders are born, not made. In early age of Leadership they thought that leader should posses some special talent in born. That cannot be possessed through learning, or developed though training. They didnt consider the positions as well as they were only born to lead. In current research on leadership focused on the personality trait of leader that should have. Now in our organisation all the leaders are well educated and properly trained. They have got the knowledge to handle the critical situations. Currently in compared to corporate sector, Most of the organisations now focusing on main diversity initiatives and it can tackle through behavioural approach of leadership. These diversity initiatives can only be implemented through behavioural approach in todays or tomorrows in the organisations. The quality of the leader is very important. The success of the company is fully depending on the good quality of the leader. s

Warfare Technology :: essays research papers fc

In today’s world war plays a very important role in people’s lives. Some of these wars date as far back as the Roman Empire and Alexander the Great, while others are just being born and brought to the doorstep of the world. In 1939 this world was introduced to World War II. Although this war was based in Europe, it would touch the lives of people in every continent across the world, and have a massive impact on governments and civilians alike. It was also during this time that many advancements were emerging into the world. The United States of America made many technological advancements to their weaponry, armed forces, and the types of warfare crucial to the allied victory in World War II.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The advancements to weaponry in America during the 1930’s to 1940’s greatly influenced the tides of battle for the allies. The firearms of the time were becoming faster, increased accuracy, and more lethal. The M-1 Carbine was the standard semi-automatic rifle for all American troops and was later fitted to be fully automatic. The bazooka, invented in 1941 by American scientists, was first used in the invasion of North Africa in war and proved to be excellent anti-tank warfare. It was also during this time that bullets were upgraded from the pinfire type to the rimfire type. The rimfire type proved to be more precise and damaging because of its finer texture and cartridge case. Miscellaneous advancements include chemical agent weapons (i.e. nerve gas, mustard gas), flame-throwers, improved hand grenades, and other minor adjustments to firearms in general. The Americans during World War II also improved upon vehicles. On land the use of M-60 and M-1 m ain battle tanks were common. These tanks were often outfitted with a 105-mm gun, a 120-mm gun, or two to four 0.50 caliber machine guns. Also, the use of assault vehicles, armored transports, and tracked vehicles became more involved as technology grew. In the air many advancements were made as well. â€Å"The United States Airforce grew to its top strength during World War II† (World War II 10). Aircraft used by the Americans include the P-51 Mustang long-range fighter, bombers such as the B-17, B-24 Liberator, the B-25, and the B-29 (Enola Gay). It was these aircraft that coordinated air attacks, firebombing, the atomic bombing, and ground support that was crucial in gaining the upperhand. The sea was also the target of advancements.

Product Samsung

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www. emeraldinsight. com/0309-0566. htm EJM 44,7/8 Consumer responses to brand extensions: a comprehensive model ? ? Eva Mart? nez and Jose M. Pina ? Facultad de Ciencias Economicas y Empresariales, The University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain Abstract Purpose – This paper aims to understand the reciprocal spill-over effects of brand extensions by testing a comprehensive model that gathers both the brand extension evaluation process and the later in? uence on brand image. Design/methodology/approach – Data were obtained from 699 face-to-face interviews conducted in Spain.Structural equation modelling was used to test the proposed hypotheses. Findings – The results indicate that brand extensions have feedback effects on brand image depending on the attitude toward the new product and perceived image ? t. Consumer attitude depends, in turn, on initial brand associations, perceived category ? t, perceived image ? t and consumer innovativeness. Brand familiarity also shows indirect effects. Research limitations/implications – The model should be tested with extensions of the same (line extensions) or different categories.It is also necessary to analyse non-? ctitious products, and to take different moderating effects into account. Practical implications – The results suggest how to protect the brand image from unsuitable extension strategies. The paper shows what kind of perceived ? t is more important for consumers as well as the direct and indirect role of several variables. Originality/value – The paper extends previous research by proposing a complete framework that considers the factors that in? uence either the attitude to the extension or the attitude to the extended brand.Samsung Distribution ChannelKeywords Brand extensions, Brand image, Brand equity, Consumer behaviour, Spain Paper type Research paper 1182 Received January 2008 Revised October 2008 January 2009 Accepted February 2009 Introduction Brand extension is a strategy that many companies follow with the aim of bene? ting from the brand knowledge achieved in the current markets (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Milberg et al. , 1997). When a new product is marketed under a well-known brand name, failure rates and marketing costs are reduced (Milewicz and Herbig, 1994; Keller, 2003). Keller (2003) states that more than 80 per cent of ? ms resort to brand extensions as a way of marketing goods and services. The support that the brand gives to the new product often leads to a change in the brand image associations. Both the affection and the speci? c knowledge associated with the brand and the new product are interchanged in the consumers’ mind (Czellar, 2003). European Journal of Marketing Vol. 44 No. 7/8, 2010 pp. 1182-1205 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0309-0566 DOI 10. 1108/03090561011047580 The authors would like to thank the following sources for their ? nanc ial help: CICYT (Ref: ?SEJ2005-02315) and Government of Aragon (â€Å"GENERES†, Ref. S-09; â€Å"PM0262/2006†). They also gratefully acknowledge the constructive comments of the three anonymous EJM reviewers. This feedback process can increase the memory and strength of brand associations (Morrin, 1999; Aaker, 2002) and, thus, improve the positioning of the brand (Park et al. , 1986). Nevertheless, several authors indicate that the dilution of current beliefs is more likely (Tauber, 1988; Ries and Trout, 1993; John et al. , 1998). This dilution effect can take place even though the extension is not related to negative information (Morrin, 1999; ?Ahluwalia and Gurhan-Canli, 2000; Mart? nez and Pina, 2003). Virgin, for instance, is a company that has grown through extensions into the audiovisual sector, retailing, alcoholic drinks, passenger transport (by railway and air) and space tourism, among others. However, market research studies suggest that customers’ per ceptions of the Virgin brand mainly depend on the performance of the airline, which implies a constant threat of image dilution (Hughes, 2007). The in? uence of brand extension on brand image is explained by several theories, most of them coming from Psychology.According to the â€Å"associative network theory†, brand image may be understood as a mental scheme formed by a network of concepts (nodes) interconnected by linkages or associations (Anderson, 1983; Morrin, 1999). Park et al. (1993) explain that extensions which are coherent with the brand schema will not lead to image dilution (assimilation process). On the other hand, the brand schema will be modi? ed to accommodate examples that are far from current brand attitudes and beliefs (accommodation process). Following Weber and Crocker’s (1983) ? ork, Gurhan-Canli and Maheswaran (1998) suggest that the image modi? cation could be re? ected in the formation of a mental subcategory inside the brand scheme (sub-typin g model) or in a complete modi? cation of brand associations (conversion model). The sub-typing or conversion processes may occur when perceived ? t or typicality between the extension category and the brand is low. However, it is just possible that brand attitudes and beliefs would always change because of the new information, which is called the bookkeeping model (Weber and Crocker, 1983; Loken and John, ? 993; Gurhan-Canli and Maheswaran, 1998). Consumers could react according to the bookkeeping model when the information on the new product is highly accessible. Regardless of perceived ? t, higher accessibility gives rise to an image enhancement, whereas lower accessibility has a negative effect on brand evaluations (Ahluwalia and ? Gurhan-Canli, 2000). The brand extension literature shows that brand extensions can affect both the ? general brand associations (Mart? nez and de Chernatony, 2004) and the beliefs in speci? attributes (Keller and Aaker, 1992; Loken and John, 1993). T he beliefs related to the most representative product of the brand, or ? agship product, are more resistant to dilution ( John et al. , 1998; Chang, 2002), as well as the perceptions linked to the brand personality (Diamantopoulos et al. , 2005). Most previous research on brand extensions develops experimental designs, focusing on a reduced number of variables (e. g. Loken and John, 1993; John et al. , 1998; Alexander and Colgate, 2005). Some authors have tested models through structural ? equation modelling (e. g.Bhat and Reddy, 2001; Volckner and Sattler, 2006) although they concentrate on consumer attitude toward brand extensions and not on reciprocal spillover effects. According to literature, brand extensions may give rise to both a â€Å"forward† effect from the parent brand to the new product and a â€Å"feedback† or â€Å"backward† effect from the new product to the parent brand (Milberg et al. , 1997; Responses to brand extensions 1183 EJM 44,7/8 1184 B alachander and Ghose, 2003). Neglecting this potential backward effect affords a limited view of consumer behaviour and may lead to inappropriate marketing actions.With the goal of better understanding the way that extensions in? uence brand image, our work proposes and validates a theoretical model that, according to the previous literature, integrates the most relevant variables. With the exception of the ? contribution of Volckner and Sattler (2006), previous models only focus on a few variables, which makes it dif? cult to determine how the consumers’ responses to brand extensions are generated. Furthermore, the proposed model considers both the brand image before the extension and the image variation, which is a step forward in literature.As well as brand image, we will analyse the effects of brand familiarity, attitude to the extension, extension-brand ? t (category and image ? t), perceived dif? culty in manufacturing the extension product and consumer innovativeness. Hence, the study expands previous research by testing a comprehensive model that gathers both the brand extension evaluation process and the later in? uence on brand image. This model can help brand managers to protect their brands from unsuitable brand extensions by showing the main determinants of spillover effects and the direct and indirect effects of the speci? variables. Relationships that have been individually supported in previous works could be rejected when considering complex models with several dependent and independent variables. The study is structured in four sections. The next section contains a brief review of the literature to justify the theoretical model and the relations established in the hypotheses. The third section describes the methodology used to validate the model, and the results are reported in the fourth section. Finally, we address the conclusions and managerial recommendations.Proposed model and hypotheses The proposed model helps us to understand t he in? uence of brand extensions on brand image. For this reason, the model includes the variables with the greatest impact on extension attitude (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Hem et al. , 2003). This attitude will determine the development of the brand image (Lane and Jacobson, 1997), affecting the current associations. The model stems from the initial brand image and attempts to identify the main relations and interactions that follow the launching of the brand extension and its potential effects on the established associations.Generally, consumer attitudes toward brand extensions can depend on factors related to brand associations, extended category, perceived ? t, and consumer characteristics (Czellar, 2003; Reast, 2005; ? Volckner and Sattler, 2006). Hence, two brand knowledge factors, brand familiarity and initial brand image, are considered. In relation to the new product and its ? t with the parent brand, we consider perceived dif? culty in manufacturing, perceived category ? t a nd perceived brand image ? t. Extension attitude and consumer innovativeness are also taken into consideration. Whereas brand associations and ? have been examined in nearly every study on brand extensions, perceived dif? culty and consumer innovativeness have received lesser attention. Since Aaker and Keller’s (1990) fundamental study and all subsequent replications (Barrett et al. , 1999) analysed perceived dif? culty with inconclusive results, it seems necessary to study this variable more in depth. On the other hand, the whole literature on brand extensions relies on the assumption that a known brand reduces the risk associated with buying new products (Smith and Park, 1992), and consumer innovativeness re? ects the consumer’s risk aversion.The proposed effects of these variables and the remaining ones are depicted in Figure 1. The ? rst variable included in our model is brand familiarity. This variable is closely related to the dimension of brand equity labelled a s awareness by Aaker (1996), since familiar brand names usually present high awareness. Moreover, it is also akin to the brand image construct, which refers to the different â€Å"perceptions about a brand re? ected as associations existing in the memory of the consumer† (Keller, 1993). Direct effects on extension attitude are expected for brand familiarity as well as indirect ones through brand image.First, individuals will have a better initial image of the brands they are familiar with (Low and Lamb, 2000; Lemmink et al. , 2003). By means of a â€Å"halo effect†, the impressions of familiar attributes are used to form precise opinions on brands (Reynolds, 1965) and develop more complete knowledge structures (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987; Grime et al. , 2002). Furthermore, familiarity indirectly re? ects the experience with a brand (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987), presenting a clear relationship between experience and brand image (Hoek et al. , 2000).Familiarity can also ha ve a direct effect on brand extension evaluations. Consumers are more inclined to buy products of brands they have previously consumed (Swaminathan, 2003) and know better, unless the experience has been unsatisfactory (Swaminathan et al. , 2001). Although some works have failed to prove that familiarity affects consumer attitude to an extension (Glynn and Brodie, 1998) and to the extended brand (Diamantopoulus et al. , 2005), we hypothesise: H1. The greater the familiarity of the core brand, the more positive the initial brand image. H2.The greater the familiarity of the core brand, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. Brand image is an essential factor for understanding consumer attitude toward brand extensions, since the credibility of the new product increases when brand perceptions become more favourable (de Ruyter and Wetzels, 2000). If the brand image consists of Responses to brand extensions 1185 Figure 1. Proposed model to analyse the effect of brand extension strategy on brand image EJM 44,7/8 1186 associations such as a high-perceived quality, the extension attitude will be better (van ? Riel et al. 2001; Volckner and Sattler, 2006). In the same vein, the extension attitude is positively related to the perceptions of reputation (Hem et al. , 2003), prestige (Park et al. , 1991) and the consumers’ affection for the brand (Sheinin and Schmitt, 1994). In the case of corporate and service brands, a positive image also clearly generates favourable perceptions of the new products (Brown and Dacin, 1997; de Ruyter and Wetzels, 2000). Given that the extension leverages the current brand associations, the better the initial brand image the more positive will be the consumers’ response.Therefore: H3. The more positive the initial brand image, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. If consumers perceive a high ? t between the brand and the new product, the brand leveraging increases and the potential negative effects are less likely (Czellar, 2003). Some authors state that consumers can consider a category ? t or an image ? t (Bhat and Reddy, 2001; Grime et al. , 2002; Czellar, 2003). Thus, individuals can believe that the new product is physically similar to the other products of the brand (category ? t) or coherent with the general brand associations (image ? ) (Grime et al. , 2002; Czellar, 2003). Whatever the case, the consistency between cognitive elements and the similarity among various stimuli ease and improve consumers’ evaluations (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). Brand image-perceived ? t interaction effects are revealed in the literature (Boush et al. , 1987; Aaker and Keller, 1990) as well as ? direct effects (Volckner and Sattler, 2006). The next hypotheses deal with the direct effects of perceived ? t dimensions on extension evaluation. As commented above, perceived category and image ? will directly affect the consumer attitude to the extension. Generally, the assessment of an extension will be more positive as perceived closeness with the brand grows (Aaker and Keller, 1990; ? Volckner and Sattler, 2006), even in the case of non-prestige brands (Park et al. ,1991). However, consumers believe that extensions to non-related categories are not very reliable and offer low quality, which causes a negative assessment (Kirmani et al. , 1999). According to the literature, a high-perceived category or image ? t makes success more likely (Boush et al. 1987; Boush and Loken, 1991; Park et al. , 1991). The important thing is to get the consumers to relate the new product to the brand, independently of the kind of closeness. This discussion leads to the following hypotheses: H4. The greater the perceived category ? t between the extension and the core brand, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. H5. The greater the perceived image ? t between the extension and the core brand, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. Another va riable included in our model is perceived dif? ulty in manufacturing or offering a new good or service. This variable has been analysed in numerous works, although it is not clear whether it in? uences consumer behaviour or not (Barrett et al. , 1999; van Riel et al. , 2001). Moreover, present research does not clarify whether this in? uence is positive (Aaker and Keller, 1990; van Riel and Ouwersloot, 2005) or negative (Semeijn et al. , 2004). This diversity of results re? ects that the in? uence of dif? culty in manufacturing might depend on the study settings and the variables interacting with such dif? culty.Generally, consumers who think that the new product category requires little manufacturing effort may question its advisability (Aaker and Keller, 1990). They could even think that high-quality brands are trying to make fast money by overpricing trivial products (Aaker and Keller, 1990; van Riel et al. , 2001). In a sense, easy-to-make extensions could resemble downscale ext ensions, where the brand stretches down by offering lower price-quality products (Kirmani et al. , 1999). Consequently, we posit: H6. The greater the perceived dif? culty in manufacturing the new product, the more favourable the attitude to the extension.The last variable of our model to explain attitude to the extension is consumer innovativeness, a concept that represents the consumers’ propensity to buy new products and consider new ideas (Roehrich, 2004). Since innovative people are more risk-prone (Klink and Smith, 2001; Hem et al. , 2003), they show a better attitude toward brand extensions, whatever their perceived ? t (Klink and Smith, 2001). In this sense, some authors have found that higher consumer innovativeness increases perceived quality and purchase intention of new services (Hem et al. , 2003; Siu et al. , 2004) and ? tangible products (Volckner and Sattler, 2006).Rogers (1983) claims that one of the most salient traits of consumer innovators is the comfort th ey gain from taking risk. Unlike later adopters, highly-innovative individuals ? nd far extensions appealing (Xie, 2008) and, consequently, do not mind trying products that get away from the company’s core business. As a matter of fact, they should be more prone to try new products regardless of the degree of brand knowledge or perceived ? t. Consequently, we posit: H7. The greater consumer innovativeness, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. The following hypotheses relate to the feedback effect on brand image.Because of the new information, the brand schema could vary its structure of nodes and links (Morrin, 1999). There is no doubt that most brand associations will remain stable after stretching to new categories, being the ? nal perceptions mainly determined by the ? initial ones (Lee and Ulgado, 1993; Mart? nez and Pina, 2003). However, product introductions in the marketplace involve providing consumers with information, which not always ? ts with the ini tial beliefs and feelings about the brand. As elucidated by previous research, the attitude to the extension is a major driver of spillover effects from the extension to the parent brand.Low quality or negatively ? assessed extensions will entail a detriment of brand image (Chang, 2002; Mart? nez and ? Pina, 2003), diluting both general and speci? c beliefs (Mart? nez and de Chernatony, 2004). Diamantopoulos et al. (2005) found that brand personality is more dilution-resistant, although any brand association is exposed to the risk of dilution. A way of reducing this risk is to strengthen the attitude to the extension, given that consumers who are satis? ed with the extension are usually satis? ed with the brand (Alexander and Colgate, 2005). The following hypothesis is based on these arguments. H8.The better the attitude to the extension, the more favourable the feedback effect on the extended brand. Responses to brand extensions 1187 EJM 44,7/8 1188 The literature reveals that the attitude to an extended brand directly depends on the degree of ? t with the extension (Grime et al. , 2002). The introduction of extensions far from the core business will involve losing brand differentiation and credibility, whereas extensions to related markets will avoid potential damage (Aaker, 2002). Some authors like Milberg et al. (1997) have proved that low-? t extensions generate negative feedback in terms of attributes or image.Similarly, Lee and Ulgado (1993) ? veri? ed that ? t has a positive effect on the image of service ? rms, whereas Mart? nez and de Chernatony (2004) veri? ed the same for tangible product extensions. Other works equally suggest that the impact of brand extensions on the parent brand is ? directly related to similarity (Mart? nez and Pina, 2003) or image ? t (Loken and John, 1993; John et al. , 1998). All in all, we expect a more positive feedback effect provided the brand stretches coherently with either its image or current products. H9. The great er the perceived category ? between the extension and the core brand, the more favourable the feedback effect on the extended brand. H10. The greater the perceived image ? t between the extension and the core brand, the more favourable the feedback effect on the extended brand. Methodology An empirical study was conducted to contrast the hypotheses and validate the model displayed in Figure 1. Following the usual procedures, we utilised real brands and realistic hypothetical extensions (Aaker and Keller, 1990; van Riel et al. , 2001; van Riel and Ouwersloot, 2005) that were previously selected through three pre-tests.Below, we explain these and other aspects related to the methodology applied. Pre-tests In line with previous research, a sample of undergraduates was employed in the pre-tests (Sheinin and Schmitt, 1994; Kim, 2003). The speci? c brands and extensions were selected by means of Wilcoxon tests, which were necessary due to the lack of normality in the data. The aim of the ? rst pre-test, conducted with 91 students, was to choose brands in three sectors (fast moving consumer goods, durable consumer goods and services) that were familiar (F) to individuals and had a different image perception (I).Familiarity is an essential requisite to guarantee that consumers have a clear image to evaluate (Low and Lamb, 2000). Two questions were thus formulated to assess those concepts in seven-point Likert scales (1 ? Totally unfamiliar/7 ? Very familiar; 1 ? Bad image/7 ? Excellent image) for a total of 11 brands. According to the results, Colgate ? and Signal (FC ? 6. 38; FS ? 5. 50), Nike and Puma (FN ? 6. 56; FP ? 5. 64), Telefonica Movistar and Amena (FT ? 6. 64; FA ? 6. 27) were chosen as familiar brands. The image is signi? cantly different in toothpaste brands (IC ? 5. 74; IS ? 4. 96; Z ? 2 4. 618; p , 0. 0001), sports brands (IN ? 6. 21; IP ? 5. 10; Z ? 2 5. 449; p , 0. 00001) and mobile phones (IT ? 5. 67; IA ? 4. 88; Z ? 2 4. 001; p , 0. 00001). The seco nd and third pre-tests, where 98 and 81 students, respectively, participated, were aimed at ? nding two extensions –one for each sector– with differences in perceived ? t. Both perceived category ? t (CF) and brand image ? t (IF) were considered (Bhat and Reddy, 2001) in two Likert scales (1 ? Not at all similar/7 ? Very similar; 1 ? Non-coherent/7 ? Very coherent). For the toothpaste brands, â€Å"sugar-free whitening tooth decay-preventing sweets† and â€Å"sunglasses† were selected.The ? rst showed a higher perceived ? t than the second for Colgate (CF1 ? 5. 36; CF2 ? 1. 31; Z ? 2 5. 341; p , 0. 00001) (IF1 ? 5. 69; IF2 ? 1. 54; Z ? 2 5. 339; p , 0. 00001) and Signal (CF1 ? 4. 86; CF2 ? 1. 19; Z ? 2 5. 120; p , 0. 00001) (IF1 ? 5. 19; IF2 ? 1. 25; Z ? 2 5. 019; p , 0. 00001). On the other hand, for the sports brands, we chose â€Å"skis† as a close extension and â€Å"DVD players† as a far extension, both from the perspective of product c ategory of Nike (CF1 ? 3. 33; CF2 ? 1. 28; Z ? 2 5. 120; p , 0. 00001) and Puma (CF1 ? 3. 32; CF2 ? 1. 14; Z ? 2 4. 910; p , 0. 00001).Similarly, there were statistical differences between the image ? t of the extensions for Nike (IF1 ? 4. 23; IF2 ? 1. 36; Z ? 2 5. 561; p , 0. 00001) and Puma (IF1 ? 3. 89; IF2 ? 1. 14; Z ? 2 5. 113; p , 0. 00001). Finally, â€Å"telecommunication on-line courses† and â€Å"insurance† were the service extensions selected. Speci? cally, the perceived category ? and image ? t were statistically different for Telefonica Movistar (CF1 ? 4. 67; CF2 ? 1. 84; Z ? 2 5. 475; p , 0. 00001) (IF1 ? 4. 72; IF2 ? 1. 72; Z ? 2 5. 543; p , 0. 00001) and Amena (CF1 ? 3. 73; CF2 ? 1. 76; Z ? 2 4. 283; p , 0. 00001) (IF1 ? 4. 27; IF2 ? 1. 84; Z ? 2 4. 61; p , 0. 00001). Sample and procedure Subsequent to the pre-tests, we elaborated 12 questionnaires with a different brand-extension combination. On the ? rst page, individuals had to indicate their consume r innovativeness and answer some questions about the corresponding brand (familiarity and image) and product category (perceived dif? culty). Then, on the second page of the questionnaire, respondents were required to imagine that the speci? c brand launched the extension. Questions then assessed the ? t, the respondents’ attitudes towards the extension and the brand image, supposing the existence of the new product category.No additional information about the products’ attributes was provided in order to avoid bias that could defeat the objective of the study (Bhat and Reddy, 2001). The surveys were answered by a total sample of 720 individuals (699 valid cases) in a Spanish city, which is sometimes considered as a test market for products aimed at Spain. The respondents were approached by a team of interviewers in different parts of the city, on different days and at different times during May 2005. By following a quota sampling procedure, the sample was required to match the population structure by sex (50. 9 per cent women and 49. per cent men) and age (46. 5 per cent 26-45 years, 33. 3 per cent 16-25 years, 20. 2 per cent 46-64 years). These demographical variables may be strong predictors of changes in attitudes and behavior (Hansman and Schutjens, 1993) and, therefore, should be controlled to get adequate variance in the data. Table I shows the type of questionnaires used in our research and the speci? c number of individuals who satisfactorily responded to each. No individual answered more than one questionnaire. Measures Variables were measured through seven-point Likert scales by requesting individuals either to state their level of agreement with the speci? statement (1 ? Totally disagree, 7 ? Totally agree) or directly assess the variable (e. g. 1 ? Not at all familiar, 7 ? Very familiar). In all cases, items were extracted or based on the literature. In order to avoid potential order effects (Klink and Smith, 2001), perceived Respons es to brand extensions 1189 EJM 44,7/8 N8 Brand 49 Colgate Extension (high ? t) Sugar-free whitening tooth decaypreventing sweets Sugar-free whitening tooth decay†¦ Skis Skis Telecommunication online courses Telecommunication online courses N8 Brand 50 Colgate 48 49 49 80 Signal Nike Puma ? Telefonica Movistar 75 AmenaExtension (low ? t) Sunglasses Sunglasses DVD players DVD players Insurance Insurance 1190 Table I. Type and number of questionnaires Signal Nike Puma ? Telefonica Movistar 79 Amena 49 48 49 74 dif? culty was assessed prior to brand characteristics and ? t. For the same reason, ? nal image was measured once the individuals had formed an opinion about the brand extension. Table II shows the scales used for each factor. First, consumer innovativeness was measured with the items proposed by Roehrich (1994), who considers a dual perspective, â€Å"hedonistic† and â€Å"social†. Perceived dif? ulty was assessed through an item used by Aaker and Keller (19 90) and two additional items coherent with the concept. For brand familiarity, we used Dawar’s scale (Dawar, 1996), whereas the scale validated by Martinez et al. (2004) was employed to assess initial and ? nal brand image. This scale utilises items from several works (Martin and Brown, 1990; Weiss et al. , 1999) which attempt to assess tangible (functional image) and intangible (affective image) attributes and bene? ts, as well as the global attitude to the brand (reputation). The distinction made by several authors between category ? t or similarity and image ? or consistency with brand image (Park et al. , 1991; Bhat and Reddy, 2001; Grime et al. , 2002) was used to measure perceived ? t. Thus, a series of items that assess ? t from both perspectives (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Taylor and Bearden, 2002) were chosen. Finally, extension attitude items were suggested by authors like Aaker and Keller (1990) or Pryor and Brodie (1998) considering both the general assessment of the new product and purchase intentions. Results The collected data were analysed by means of structural equations methodology, assessing both the measurement and the structural model (Kline, 2005).The structural model allows us to know whether there is evidence to reject the proposed hypotheses, although previously the measurement model has to evaluate the psychometric properties of the scales in terms of unidimensionality, reliability and validity. Furthermore, some ? t indicators show whether the measurement and structural models explain the collected data with relative precision (Hair et al. , 1998). Scale validation Prior to analysing all the variables as a whole, we studied whether initial brand image, ? nal brand image, consumer innovativeness and perceived ? should be considered as multidimensional or unidimensional factors, since the distinction between the Scale Consumer innovativeness. Roehrich (1994) Measured concept Hedonist innovativeness (HINN) HINN1: I am more intereste d in buying new than known products HINN2: I like to buy new and different products HINN3: New products excite me Social innovativeness (SINN) SINN1: I am usually among the ? rst to try new products SINN2: I try new products before my friends and neighbours SINN3: I know more than others about the latest new products DIFF1: Dif? ulty in designing and making the product DIFF2: Complex techniques or knowledge are needed DIFF3: Specialised resources are needed (personnel, facilities. . . ) FAMI1: Familiarity with the brand’s products FAMI2: Purchase frequency of the brand’s products FAMI3: Knowledge of the brand’s products Functional image (FUIM) (initial/? nal) FUIM1i/FUIM1f: The products have a high quality FUIM2i/FUIM2f: The products have better characteristics than competitors’ FUIM3i/FUIM3f: The products of the competitors are usually cheaper Affective image (AFIM) (initial/? al) AFIM1i/AFIM1f: The brand is nice AFIM2i/AFIM2f: The brand has a personalit y that distinguishes it from competitors AFIM3i/AFIM3f: It is a brand that does not disappoint its customers Reputation (REIM) (initial/? nal) REIM1i/REIM1f: It is one of the best brands in the sector REIM2i/REIM2f: The brand is very consolidated in the market Category ? t (CAFI) CAFI1: The extension is similar to the brand’s products CAFI2: The ? rm’s resources are helpful to make the product extension Image ? t (IMFI) IMFI1: The product extension ? s with the brand image IMFI2: Launching the extension is logical for the company IMFI3: Launching the extension is appropriate for the company EXAT1: Favourable attitude towards the extension EXAT2: Perceived quality of the extension EXAT3: Likelihood of trying the extension Responses to brand extensions 1191 Perceived dif? culty (DIFF). Aaker and Keller (1990) Brand familiarity (FAMI). Dawar (1996) ? Brand image. Mart? nez et al. (2004). Based on: Martin and Brown (1990) Aaker (1996); Weiss et al. (1999); Villarejo (2002) Perceived ? t. Aaker and Keller (1990); Taylor and Bearden (2002) Extension attitude (EXAT).Aaker and Keller (1990); Pryor and Brodie (1998) Table II. Scales used in the questionnaires EJM 44,7/8 1192 proposed dimensions (e. g. hedonistic and social innovativeness) could be statistically non-advisable. Through a previous analysis with SPSS 13. 0, we detected a weak item-total correlation of FUIM3i (corr. ? 0. 281) and FUIM3f (corr. ? 0. 296) with the respective dimensions of functional image. After eliminating them, we conducted an explanatory factor analysis for the unidimensional and multidimensional models using the EQS 5. b and ERLS (elliptical re-weighted least squares) estimation method.The initial image, ? ?nal image and perceived ? t scales proved to be reliable in both models (Joreskog and ? Sorbom, 1993), although it was advisable to eliminate HINN1 related to consumer innovativeness. Although the factor loadings exceeded the cut point lU ? 0:540; lM ? 0:673? ; the R 2 co ef? cients ? R 2 ? 0:292; R 2 ? 0:453? were below those recommended in the literature (Hair et al. , 1998). Once the scales had been properly re? ned, we proceeded to compare the unidimensional and multidimensional models through several indicators (Hair et al. , 1998; Kline, 2005). Tables III and IV display the coef? ients obtained, which clearly favour the consideration of independent dimensions for all the factors analysed. The only indexes in which the unidimensional model surpasses the multidimensional one are PNFI and PGFI for the factors of initial brand image (PNFI ? 0. 511 , 0. 638; Comparative indicators Initial image Unidimen. Multidimen. 126. 181 0. 047 0. 221 112. 181 0. 160 0. 638a 0. 466a 154. 181 72. 177a 0. 034a 0. 152a 61. 177a 0. 088a 0. 511 0. 377 106. 177a Final image Unidimen. Multidimen. 211. 559 0. 053 0. 343 197. 559 0. 283 0. 628a 0. 449a 239. 559 51. 082a 0. 027a 0. 122a 40. 082a 0. 057a 0. 516 0. 382 85. 082a x2RMSR (Root mean square residual) ECVI (Expec ted cross-validation index) NCP (Noncentrality parameter) SNCP (Scaled noncentrality parameter) PNFI (Parsimonious normed ? t index) PGFI (Parsimonious goodness of ? t index) AIC (Akaike information criterion) Table III. Indicators of the alternative models of brand image (initial and ? nal) Note: aCoef? cients that are favourable to the speci? ed model Comparative indicators Consumer innov. Unidimen. Multidimen. 195. 411 0. 079 0. 309 190. 411 0. 272 0. 453a 0. 292a 215. 411 31. 088a 0. 022a 0. 076a 27. 088a 0. 039a 0. 394 0. 261 53. 088a Perceived ? t Unidimen. Multidimen. 77. 634 0. 34 0. 140 72. 634 0. 104 0. 483a 0. 314a 97. 634 50. 164a 0. 025a 0. 103a 46. 164a 0. 066a 0. 391 0. 256 72. 164a x2 RMSR (Root mean square residual) ECVI (Expected cross-validation index) NCP (Noncentrality parameter) SNCP (Scaled noncentrality parameter) PNFI (Parsimonious normed ? t index) PGFI (Parsimonious goodness of ? t index) AIC (Akaike information criterion) Table IV. Indicators of the alter native models of consumer innovativeness and ? t Note: aCoef? cients that are favourable to the speci? ed model PGFI ? 0. 377 , 0. 466), ? nal image (PNFI ? 0. 516 , 0. 628; PGFI ? 0. 382 , 0. 449), consumer innovativeness (PNFI ? . 394 , 0. 453; PGFI ? 0. 261 , 0. 292) and perceived ? t (PNFI ? 0. 391 , 0. 483; PGFI ? 0. 256 , 0. 314). Nevertheless, the parsimony indicator, AIC, which allows us to choose between models with a different number of latent variables, as in our case, presents better values in the multidimensional structure: initial image (AIC ? 106. 177 , 154. 181), ? nal image (AIC ? 85. 082 , 239. 559), consumer innovativeness (AIC ? 53. 088 , 215. 411) and perceived ? t (AIC ? 72. 164 , 97. 634). After verifying the multidimensional character of initial brand image, ? nal brand image, consumer innovativeness and perceived ? , our next step was to conduct a factor analysis of all the scales. Again, we used EQS and ERLS, obtaining the results shown in Table V. We can i nfer from these results that the scales present good statistical properties. As can be seen in Table V, all the proposed items unidimensionally ? t the respective 13 factors or latent variables. The values obtained in composite reliability coef? cients and extracted variance analysis (EVA) are above 0. 6 and 0. 5, respectively, which guarantees the internal consistency of the scales. Moreover, the validity criterion was satis? ed from both convergent and discriminant viewpoints.Thus, all lambda coef? cients for the observed variables are signi? cant (t . 1. 96) and they load on the corresponding factors with standard loadings above 0. 5. The con? dence intervals of between-factor correlations were calculated to analyse discriminant validity. No intervals included value 1, which indicates the differentiated character of the factors. The main goodness-of-? t indicators for the measurement model are shown at the bottom of Table V, distinguishing between global and incremental ? t index es. On the whole, the indicators are positive and above the minimum established by researchers (Hair et al. 1998; Kline, 2005). With regard to global ? t, GFI is above 0. 8 (GFI ? 0. 884), whereas RMSEA and SRMR error statistics were below the maximum values of 0. 06 (RMSEA ? 0. 053) and 0. 08 (SRMR ? 0. 040) recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999). The only unsuitable indicator is the Chi-square test (x 2(417) ? 1224. 142; p , 0. 001), which often occurs in samples of over 400 observations. On the other hand, all the incremental ? t measures were above the required 0. 8 (AGFI ? 0. 844) and 0. 9 (CFI ? 0. 973; IFI ? 0. 973; NFI ? 0. 960; NNFI ? 0. 966) levels, which proves the statistical convenience of the proposed model.The validation process concluded with the estimation of three second-order models for the dimensions of brand image (initial and ? nal) and consumer innovativeness. These models presented favourable ? t indicators for initial image (GFI ? 0. 958; SRMR ? 0. 035; NFI ? 0. 975; IFI ? 0. 979), ? nal image (GFI ? 0. 972; SRMR ? 0. 028; NFI ? 0. 985; IFI ? 0. 989) and consumer innovativeness (GFI ? 0. 978; SRMR ? 0. 022; NFI ? 0. 985; IFI ? 0. 987). Model and hypotheses contrasting After analysing the psychometric properties of the scales, we proceeded to the estimation of the structural model, which corresponds to the structure shown in Figure 1.Previously, the global effect of extensions on brand image was analysed, comparing the values of initial and ? nal image in each scenario. Responses to brand extensions 1193 EJM 44,7/8 Factor HINN SINN Items HINN2 HINN3 SINN1 SINN2 SINN3 FUIM1i FUIM2i FUim1f FUIM2f AFIM1i AFIM2i AFIM3i AFIM1f AFIM2f AFIM3f REIM1i REIM2i REIM1f REIM2f FAMI1 FAMI2 FAMI3 DIFF1 DIFF2 DIFF3 EXAT1 EXAT2 EXAT3 CAFI1 CAFI2 IMFI1 IMFI2 IMFI3 Reliability t (. 1. 96) l(. 0. 5) 22. 230 20. 993 26. 547 25. 862 19. 829 22. 534 20. 543 24. 779 24. 208 21. 076 19. 473 17. 864 21. 545 21. 680 17. 880 23. 342 18. 125 25. 834 19. 868 22. 112 19 . 930 20. 822 18. 05 24. 402 18. 291 22. 956 18. 606 21. 579 22. 312 18. 837 26. 733 26. 683 24. 607 0. 861 0. 820 0. 915 0. 899 0. 744 0. 835 0. 776 0. 873 0. 859 0. 787 0. 741 0. 693 0. 798 0. 802 0. 694 0. 871 0. 706 0. 919 0. 751 0. 838 0. 771 0. 799 0. 729 0. 926 0. 725 0. 831 0. 712 0. 795 0. 839 0. 730 0. 906 0. 905 0. 859 Convergent validity * CRC (. 0. 6) EVA (. 0. 5) 0. 828 0. 891 0. 787 0. 857 0. 785 0. 810 0. 770 0. 825 0. 845 0. 839 0. 824 0. 763 0. 920 0. 707 0. 733 0. 650 0. 750 0. 550 0. 587 0. 629 0. 704 0. 645 0. 638 0. 610 0. 618 0. 793 1194 FUIM (i) FUIM (f) AFIM (i) AFIM (f) REIM (i) REIM (f) FAMI DIFF EXAT CAFI IMFITable V. Reliability, convergent validity and ? t of the measurement model Notes: Fit indices: Global ? t: x 2 ? 1224. 142 (417) p , 0. 001; GFI ? 0. 884; RMSEA ? 0. 053; SRMR ? 0. 040. Incremental ? t: AGFI ? 0. 844; CFI ? 0. 973; IFI ? 0. 973; NFI ? 0. 960; NNFI ? 0. 966; CRC: Composite reliability coef? cient; EVA: Extracted variance analysis, GFI : Goodness of ? t index; RMSEA: Root mean square error of approximation; SRMR: Standardised root mean square residual; AGFI: Adjusted goodness of ? t index; CFI: Comparative ? t index; IFI: Incremental ? t index; NFI: Normed ? t index; NNFI: Non-normed ? t indexGiven that the Cronbach alphas exceeded 0. 7, a single measure of initial and ? nal image, obtained as the mean of all the underlying items, was considered. Figures 2-4 gather the results according to the sector. For a better understanding of the effect on image, a single initial image (IMAG * (i)), calculated as the mean of initial brand images for close and far extensions, was taken into consideration. A new ? nal brand image (IMAG * (f)), resulting from adding IMAG * (i) to the difference obtained between the ? nal and the initial image in each scenario, was also considered. In general, these Responses to brand extensions 195 Figure 2. Brand image variation (toothpaste brands) Figure 3. Brand image variation (sport brands) Figure 4. Brand image variation (mobile phones brands) graphics suggest that ? rms should avoid entering markets far from their sector, since such extensions clearly entail brand image dilution. Once the global effect of extensions was analysed, the model hypotheses were tested. To test hypotheses related to feedback effects we created new variables based on unstandardised residuals. These residuals represent the brand image variation in such a way that higher values indicate more favourable feedback effects.They were obtained by regressing the post-test scores against the corresponding post-test scores, and the psychometrical properties of the resulting construct were similar to those of brand image factors (Cronbach’s alpha ? 0. 795). EJM 44,7/8 1196 Table VI contains the results of the model estimation and goodness of ? t measurements, which are acceptable and above the thresholds established in literature. Again, reasonable values were obtained for the error statistics ( RMSEA ? 0. 044; SRMR ? 0. 077) and the global ? t GFI (0. 892). The incremental ? t indexes also met the statistical requirements (AGFI ? 0. 74; CFI ? 0. 972; IFI ? 0. 972; NFI ? 0. 952; NNFI ? 0. 969). Next, the speci? c results concerning the hypotheses are commented. First, familiarity has a direct and signi? cant in? uence on initial brand image (best ? 0. 485; t-value ? 10. 419), as proposed in H1. However, contrary to H2, familiarity seems to have no signi? cant effect on extension attitude (best ? 2 0. 052; t-value ? 2 1. 443). Consequently, the most familiar brands will lead to more favourable brand associations, although not necessarily to a better assessment of the extension. The effect of initial brand image on extension attitude is signi? ant and positive (best ? 0. 232; t-value ? 6. 351), as proposed in H3. Therefore, consumers will prefer the brand extensions of companies that have managed to build and communicate positive brand associations. Since brand image depends on brand familiarity, consumer attitude toward brand extensions seems to be the result of a cognitive-affective sequence (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Supporting H4, category ? t seems to be a clear determinant of extension attitude (best ? 0. 299; t-value ? 2. 439). In the same way, extension attitude is signi? cantly dependant on image ? t (best ? 0. 587; t-value ? 4. 76), which con? rms H5. Consequently, consumers will prefer those extensions marketed in a category that ? ts the brand portfolio, especially in terms of general brand associations. The effect of perceived dif? culty on extension attitude is positive (best ? 0. 035), as expected. Nevertheless, the coef? cient relating both factors fails to reach statistical signi? cance (t-value ? 1. 186), which implies rejecting H6. This lack of statistical signi? cance reveals that consumers do not consider dif? culty of manufacturing as a heuristic of the perceived quality of the new product. Hypotheses H1: FAMI !IMAG (i) H2: FAMI ! EXAT H3: IMAG (i) ! EXAT H4: CAFI ! EXAT H5: IMFI ! EXAT H6: DIFF ! EXAT H7: INNV ! EXAT H8: EXAT ! IMAG variation H9: CAFI ! IMAG variation H10: IMFI ! IMAG variation Standardised b (t) 0. 485 * 2 0. 052 0. 232 * 0. 299 * 0. 587 * 0. 035 0. 093 * 0. 631 * 2 0. 050 0. 159 (10. 419) (2 1. 443) (6. 351) (2. 439) (4. 876) (1. 186) (2. 924) (5. 846) (2 0. 313) (1. 004) Hypotheses validation Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No Table VI. Results of the structural model Notes: *Signi? cant at p # 0. 05; Fit indices: Global ? t: x 2 ? 1131. 700 (481); p , 0. 001; GFI ? 0. 892; RMSEA ? . 044; SRMR ? 0. 077. Incremental ? t: AGFI ? 0. 874; CFI ? 0. 972; IFI ? 0. 972; NFI ? 0. 952; NNFI ? 0. 969; CRC: Composite reliability coef? cient; EVA: Extracted variance analysis, GFI: Goodness of ? t index; RMSEA: Root mean square error of approximation; SRMR: Standardised root mean square residual; AGFI: Adjusted goodness of ? t index; CFI: Comparative ? t index; IFI: Incremental ? t index; NFI: Normed ? t index; NNFI: Non-normed ? t index Regarding H7, consumer innovativeness appears to have a clear, though reduced, effect on extension attitude (best ? 0. 093; t-value ? 2. 924).All in all, attitude towards extensions will be fundamentally explained by the initial brand image (H3), perceived ? t (H4 and H5) and, to a lesser extent, by other factors such as consumer innovativeness (H7). H8 to H10 indicate the factors that explain the potential feedback effects of brand extensions on brand image. With respect to H8, extension attitude has a positive and signi? cant effect on brand image variation (best ? 0. 631; t ? 5. 846). Hence, the more favourable the attitude to the extension is, the more favourable the attitude toward the extended brand will be. Because of the high coef? ient obtained, companies launching brand extensions will have to avoid damaging their brands with low quality products. Contrary to our expectations, perceived category ? t has no direct effect on brand image variation, which rejects H9 (best ? 2 0. 050; t ? 2 0. 313). Despite showing a relatively high and positive coef? cient, the effect of image ? t proposed in H10 is not signi? cant either (best ? 0. 159; t ? 1. 004). The lack of signi? cance in both coef? cients suggests that the in? uence of ? t on brand image variation is only indirect through extension attitude (H4 and H5).To sum up, then, while perceived image and category ? t are essential factors for the success of a brand extension, it is signi? cant that extension attitude synthesises their effects. The centralising role of extension attitude was also corroborated by checking through the estimation of competitive models that neither brand familiarity nor consumer innovativeness nor perceived dif? culty have direct effects on brand image variation. Given the importance that literature attaches to perceived ? t to explain feedback effect (e. g. Loken and John, 1993; John et al. , 1998) and the lack of signi? ant effects in our model, we took a new step in the analysis. According to Czellar (2003), perceived ? t may moderate the in? uence of the attitude to the extension on the attitude to the extended brand. In the same way that high-perceived ? t increases the transference of brand associations to the new product (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Czellar, 2003), we think that the opposite effect could take place. This possibility was explored by means of two multi-sample analyses for each of the ? t dimensions, category ? t and image ? t. Speci? cally, the sample was split into high ? t (mean . 4) and low ? (mean , 4) and the structural model were replicated without considering direct effects of ? t. The Lagrange Multiplier (LM) Test and the maximum likelihood estimation method determined whether the model coef? cients are signi? cantly different (Iglesias and ? Vazquez, 2001). The comparison between the considered sub-samples yields interesting results. Although the effect of extension attitude on image variati on was similar for category ? t (x2dif ? 0. 182; p . 0. 1), the results lend support to the existence of moderating effects for image ? t at 90 per cent (x2dif ? 2. 868; p ? 0. 090). In the expected direction, the in? ence of extension attitude was higher in the high ? t condition (best ? 0. 810; t ? 12. 740) than in the low ? t one (best ? 0. 666; t ? 11. 203). In consequence, spillover effects between the brand and the extension (forward and backward) will depend on image ? t perceptions rather than on category ? t. Responses to brand extensions 1197 EJM 44,7/8 1198 Discussion A brand is one of the most important assets for ? rms and, therefore, marketing managers must be on the alert for inadequate strategies that erode brand assets. One of this potentially risky strategies involves the launching of unsuitable brand extensions ? hat erode extended brand bene? ts and associations (Mart? nez and de Chernatony, 2004; Diamantopoulos et al. , 2005). However, so far there is no clear u nderstanding of the main variables leading to spillover effects between brand extensions and parent brands and their relative in? uence. The present work proposes a model to ? nd out how extension strategies affect brand image, one of the major dimensions of brand equity. Unlike most previous research, this paper focuses on extension evaluation and feedback effects on the core brand as interrelated rather than independent phenomena.Moreover, it incorporates a few key variables into an operative model instead of considering most of the potential variables that might divert the attention of researchers and practitioners alike. The estimation of this model showed positive goodness-of-? t indexes and, without considering non-validated relationships, it sheds some light on the main factors and processes explaining consumer attitude. According to the literature, core parent brand experience positively in? uences probability of extension trial (Swaminathan et al. , 2001; Swaminathan, 2003) .However, our results reveal an indirect effect of brand experience or brand familiarity on consumer attitude to brand extensions. This variable has a distinctive in? uence on brand image, which, in turn, affects the assessment of the new category. These results are coherent with the behaviour models de? ned by some authors who maintain that the individual’s beliefs determine attitude and this, in turn, determines purchase behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). From this perspective, brand image, rather than brand familiarity, would explain consumer attitude to the extension. Our ? dings validate previous results in the literature concerning the positive effects of perceived ? t, either category or image ? t, on consumer attitude. In the same way, it was con? rmed that consumer innovativeness increases likelihood of consumer ? acceptance, although to a lesser extent than perceived ? t (Volckner and Sattler, 2006). Nevertheless, we could not verify the proposed relationship bet ween the attitude to the extension and dif? culty in manufacturing the new category. Due to the clear inconsistency of results along studies, the relevance of this variable proposed by Aaker and Keller (1990) should be questioned.In relation to feedback effects, our results suggest that perceived ? t (category and image) has no direct effect on the extended brand image, though an indirect effect occurs through attitude to the extension. Previous works focusing on the in? uence of perceived ? t on parent brand associations have mostly resorted to experimental settings (e. g. Loken and John, 1993; Milberg et al. , 1997; John et al. , 1998) rather than SEM models. Therefore, this relationship cannot be taken for granted in complex models where several constructs are interrelated. The estimation of the model also revealed that image ? moderates the effect of extension attitude on image variation. In the light of the results, consumers that perceive the extension as coherent with the bra nd image will modify their brand associations mainly on the basis of their resulting attitude. A high ? t perception usually entails a categorisation process where the extension is associated to the brand category and leverages the current beliefs and attitudes (Monga and Houston, 2002). According to our results, this process occurs in the opposite direction in such a way that a high ? t will involve the leveraging of the attitude to the extension.The results obtained are thus in line with those works that indicate that consumer attitude toward brand extensions mainly depends on perceived ? t (Aaker and ? Keller, 1990; van Riel et al. , 2001; Volckner and Sattler, 2006). Moreover, it contributes to the body of knowledge by showing that the effect of perceived category and image ? t on the extended brand image is not direct. On the contrary, it occurs an indirect effect through extension attitude and, in the case of image ? t, a further moderating effect on the relationship between e xtension attitude and image variation. To sum up, the coef? ients obtained indicate that extension attitude is especially determined by perceived category ? t, image ? t and initial brand image, which, in turn depends on familiarity. Consumer innovativeness is also a factor that explains consumer response to brand extensions. Furthermore, the results reveal that the existence of positive feedback effects will be an immediate consequence of the attitude to the extension. These results clearly support the basic argument of our model: the consumer will assess the product according to a series of variables and, as a result, the consumers will modify the initial brand schema.Implications Considering all the results obtained as a whole, we can make some recommendations for ? rms launching brand extensions. There is no doubt that the most important aspect for the success of an extension is coherence with the image of the extended brand. Though positive, it is not essential that the new pro duct or service belongs to a new category, but the ? rm has to be able to communicate the brand essence to the different markets (Kim, 2003). Once the new product is ? rmly associated to the current brand image, consumers will perceive a high quality of the new product and the risk associated to purchasing it will be lowered.Although innovative consumers are expected to prefer low-? t products (Xie, 2008), consumer innovativeness is a factor with a weak effect on the attitude to the extension. In comparison to introducing a new brand name, brand extensions will increase consumer trust and reduce the weight of consumer innovativeness as a risk reliever. Since consumer behaviour will be relatively similar regardless of consumer predisposition to new products, this factor should not be used for potential market segmentation. In consequence, companies must identify other consumer characteristics able to alter perceptions of quality and purchase ntentions of speci? c product categories. A favourable initial image will also be positive for consumer acceptance increasing the appeal of the new product. This image is hard to obtain in the short term, although our model suggests that increasing familiarity through communication or brand trials is an effective way of building brand associations. Since brand familiarity does not directly in? uence extension attitude, companies do not have to worry when their brands are not familiar enough or the current market share is scarce.Whenever they are capable of transmitting a positive brand image and ? t is high, success should be easy to obtain. Moreover, launching products perceived as trivial or very easy to make will not prevent consumers from trying the new product, a concern highlighted by Aaker and Keller (1990). Responses to brand extensions 1199 EJM 44,7/8 1200 Once consumers have developed a favourable attitude toward the new product, the brand associations might not be diluted but even strengthened. Provided perceived ? between the extension and the core brand is high, especially on the basis of image ? t, the attitude to the extension will be the main driver of feedback effects. Consequently, increasing the success of brand extensions and protecting the leveraged image are not con? icting but complementary goals. Companies should thus address their efforts towards the success of the extension by building a bundle of coherent and strong brand associations. This is the best way to avoid the risk of image dilution. Future research Our ? ndings raise several issues for future research. The ? st issue refers to the lack of time between the extension stimulus and the subsequent measurement of brand image, which is the common procedure in most studies. The fact of the matter is that higher experience reduces the likelihood of negative feedback effects (Sheinin, 2000; Swaminathan, 2003), since the mere exposure to the new product affords consumers to establish links with the brand that, otherwise, woul d not exist (Klink and Smith, 2001). However, experiments requiring the cooperation of respondents over time are likely to suffer from a â€Å"history problem† caused by the in? ence of external events (Campbell ? and Stanley, 1963). By analysing FMCG through a longitudinal study, Volckner and Sattler (2008) show that feedback effects diminish over time, although they also admit the possibility of confounding effects. Taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of the different procedures, the present study opted to exclude extraneous variables by minimising the time between pre and post-test scores. Since we aimed to test the interrelationships between factors, the setting of the study was designed to reinforce internal validity as much as possible.Consequently, it must be observed that the paper generates a picture of feedback effects in the short-term and these effects should be checked through a long period of time. It would be also advisable to verify whether th e validated relationships are consistent when consumers are exposed to all the market signals (competitors action, distribution support, etc. ) by using real extensions. Another issue to consider is whether the model can be applied to extensions of the same category or line extensions. Since line extensions are products with a higher perceived degree of ? t (Grime et al. 2002), there is a possibility that the relationships are sustained. It might be even more interesting to study whether service companies can successfully extend to the goods markets and vice versa. Indeed, it would be worthwhile to examine the brand and extension conditions that lead to higher effects of perceived ? t dimensions on the extension attitude toward the brand. Given that the in? uence of consumer innovativeness on extension attitude was less than expected, further research could also explore whether consumer innovativeness has moderating effects rather than mediating ones.Klink and Smith (2001) proved th at the in? uence of perceived ? t on extension attitude is lower among innovative consumers, who are more receptive to new products. 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